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08 September 2020 1 Business and Management Theory Business and Management Theory 08 September 2020 2 Business and Management Theory Johnson, C. (2020 ...
08 September 2020 1 Business and Management Theory Business and Management Theory 08 September 2020 2 Business and Management Theory Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Business and Management Theory 08 September 2020 3 Business and Management Theory Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Business and Management Theory We all have theories: Discuss 08 September 2020 4 Business and Management Theory Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Business and Management Theory What is your definition of a theory? 08 September 2020 5 Business and Management Theory Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Business and Management Theory Theory needs to be contextualised. Thus, rather than derive a single definition for theory three use cases are offered instead. For a pre-experience cause, then, much of the knowledge will be disconnected from practice because it is preparing the candidate for work. This is conducted in a classroom or a lecture theory, which gives us our first use case: … theory is a dialogue in disconnected practice . 08 September 2020 6 Business and Management Theory Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Business and Management Theory This is the most straight -forward way of thinking about theory and is easy to remember. In fact, you can substitute ‘disconnected practice’ for theory, and, in most cases, the paragraph will still make sense. However, life in never that simple and we need to be more precise, so use case two states: …theory isadialogue aboutpractice, whennotactually engaged inthat practice . 08 September 2020 7 Business and Management Theory Business and Management Theory However even this does not cover all the cases. Years ago, I learned the martial art of aikido. I attained the dizzying heights of a yellow belt before I decided I was Bruce Lee’s legacy was not about to be troubled. However, I distinctly remember our sensei instructing us. He would talk us through what was involved in a manoeuvre whilst he was doing it . Rather than reflection on action this is reflecting in action. Thus, for aikido and or architect use case three states: … theory isadialogue aboutconducting practicewhilst engaged inthat practice . Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. 08 September 2020 8 Business and Management Theory Figure 1 –The Academic and Practitioner Domains of Knowledge Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Domains of Practice 08 September 2020 9 Business and Management Theory Domains of Practice Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. 08 September 2020 10 Business and Management Theory Codified Sensemaking Level of Certainty Level of Technology Technology and Uncertainty Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. 08 September 2020 11 Business and Management Theory Fundamentals Context Level of Certainty Level of Technology Technology and Uncertainty Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. 08 September 2020 12 Business and Management Theory Codified Sensemaking Context Fundamentals Level of Certainty Level of Technology Technology and Uncertainty Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. 08 September 2020 13 Business and Management Theory Theory Characteristics Foratheory tobe useful itneeds tohave some orall the following six characteristics : 1. It is that itis based onanidea ,and/or hassome formof coherent ideology. 2. Secondly, thetheory willconsistently followsomeinternally coherent setofrules . 3. Thirdly, theremaybeacorrelation and/orcausation betweenat least twoentities orphenomena . 4. Fourthly, thetheory willneed toprovide theability togeneralise under allcircumstances ,or else declare itslimitation . 5. Fifth andperhaps themost important characteristic thetheory needs toprovide anelement ofprediction . 6. Finally, thetheory needstohave some empirical evidenceto demonstrate thatitcan beverified . Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. 08 September 2020 14 Business and Management Theory Yin and Yang Yin and yang is the Chinese concept of dualism where seemingly opposite or contrary forces may be complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world, and how they may give rise to each other as they interrelate to one another. In Boolean logic we call this this an EOR – the excusive OR. You can have theory without practice , but you cannot have practice without theory . Johnson, C. (2020). Business and Management Theory: An Introduction , Kindle Direct Publishing. Thank you 08 September 2020 15 Business and Management Theory Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 1of 15 1 Research Methodology Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 2of 15 2 Kurt Lewin Lewin, K (1945). "The research centre for group dynamics at Massachusetts Institute for Technology." Sociometry 8: 126- 135. There is nothing more practical than a good theory We’ll come back to this quote later on Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 3of 15 3 Use of the Word ‘Theory’ There is probably no word which is more misused and misunderstood than the word theory. It is thought that material included in textbooks is ‘theory’ whereas what is happening in the ‘real world’ is practice. (Saunders et al. 2000, p.26) Theory is a simplified model of reality -e.g. of the practice and is in constant need of review and updating. It should be accepted that theory cannot precisely predict behaviour or outcomes, but gives the best possible indication, If it does not then the theory needs to be looked at or the practice should be improved. Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 4of 15 4 1. Theory: a formally expressed general statement which has the potential to explain things. 2. Hypothesis: a deduction that if the theory is true, the you would expect to find a relationship between at least two variables, A and B. Jankowicz, A D (2000), Business Research Projects, Business Press, London: Thomson Theory and Hypothesis Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 5of 15 5 The Intervention Diamond Organis atio nal Challenge Data C o llec t io n Literature Interventio n Que s t i o nnai r e s Interviews Implementation Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 6of 15 6 1. A research question is the key concept to the project –it will keep you focused 2. It needs to be pithy: a short sentence that has plenty of depth. 3. It needs to ask an openquestion, e.g. “To what extent….” Research Question Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 7of 15 7 Where are you going to get your data from? What literature are you going to use? Three Essential Questions What is your research question? Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 8of 15 8 Saunders et al.(2007, p.102) The Research Onion Data collection and data analysis Cross sectional Longitudinal Experiment Survey Case study Grounded theory Ethnography Action research Positivism Radical humanist Techniques and proceduresTime horizons Strategies Approaches Philosophies Inductive Deductive Hypothetico deductiveRealism Interpretivism ObjectivismSubjectivism Pragmatism Functionalist Interpretive Radical structuralist Mono- method Mixed Methods Multi- Method Archival research Choices Miligram’sexperiment (1963) – degrees of separation Philip Zimbardo –Stanford Prison Experiment Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 9of 15 9 Ideographic and Nomothetic Usually it is more rigorous to distinguish between ideographic and nomothetic research, an explanation for which is given below: Ideographic [research involves] subjective accounts which one generates ‘getting inside’.. [It] stresses the importance of letting one’s subject unfold its nature and characteristics during the process of investigation… Nomothetic [research on the other hand is a series of] systematic protocol and technique[s] [which include] surveys, questionnaires, personality tests and standardised research instruments (Burrell and Morgan 1979: 6 –7). Thus, ideographic research tends to collect qualitative data, and nomothetic research tends to collect quantitative data. Burrell, G. and Morgan, G. (1979) Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 10of 15 10 Method and Methodology Saunders et al.(2007, p.102) Data collection and data analysis Cross sectional Longitudinal Experiment SurveyCase study Grounded theory Ethnography Action research Positivism Radical humanist Techniques and procedures Time horizons Strategies Approaches Philosophies Inductive Deductive Hypothetico deductiveRealism Interpretivism ObjectivismSubjectivism Pragmatism Functionalist Interpretive Radical structuralist Mono- method Mixed Methods Multi- Method Archival research Choices Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 11of 15 11 Data: 1. Primary data: Data collected by you 2. Secondary data: Data collected by someone else, often repurposed and used in a creative way. Data can either be quantitative (numeric) or qualitative (textual) in nature Literature: 1. Primary: Refereed journals of a good quality 2. Secondary: Books, textbooks etc. 3. Tertiary: Papers and periodicals, e.g. The Financial Times, The Economist Data & Literature Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 12of 15 12 1. Privacy of possible and actual participants; 2. Voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw partially or completely from the process; 3. Consent and possible deception of participants; 4. Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or identifiable participants and their anonymity; Ethical Concerns Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 13of 15 13 5. Reactions of participants to the way in which you seek to collect data; 6. Effects on participants of the way in which you use, analyse and report your data; 7. Behaviour and objectivity of the researcher. Saunders et al.2000: 132 See also pp. 130 -142 and Appendix 3 Ethical Concerns Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 14of 15 14 Good Scholarship Conclusion At best, it thus seems that whereas the true origin of the aphorism “There is nothing so practical as a good theory” may never be known, it can be confidently concluded that it did not originate with either Kurt Lewin or an unnamed “business man”. The widespread acceptance of this attribution, however, underscores the observation that received knowledge is often wrong. It also provides one more illustration that, whatever their origin, once errors of attribution appear in print, they become diffused and amplified, taking on a life of their own as they are transmitted from generation to generation. Bedeian, A. G. (2016) A note on the aphorism “there is nothing as practical as a good theory”. Journal of Management History 22 (2), 236- 242. Harzing, A. -W. (2001) Are our referencing errors undermining our scholarship and credibility? The case of expatriate failure rates, Journal of Organizational Behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior 23 (1), 127- 148. Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 15of 15 15 Recommended Sources 1. Saunders M., Lewis P., Thornhill A. (2012) Research Methods for Business Students, Pearson Professional (Sixth edition). 2. Remenyi, D. et al. (2003) Doing Research in Business & Management , London, Sage. 3. Gill J. & Johnson P. (2002) Research Methods for Managers , Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd, London. 4. Jankowicz, A.D. (2004) Business Research Projects for Students London: Chapman & Hall. 5. Raimond, P. (1993) Management Project -Design, research and presentation Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 16of 15 16 Activity Using the BBC website locate at least six articles on COVID -19. Scrape the relevant text from the site using cut and paste or e -mail. Analyse the articles for similar themes. E -mail the themes you find to me [email protected] Doctoral of Business Administration 8 September, 2020 Slide 17of 15 17 The End The End Introduction to Qualitative Research • Usually aims to find out personal or subjective experiences/opinions/con-structions; • Usually involves small(ish) samples of people –seeks depth rather than breadth; • Ranges from untheorised interview studies, to complex methodologies (e.g. Narrative/story methods; visual methods); • Often focuses strongly on the researcher’s own involvement (ranging between reflexivity and autoethnography). Methods of Gathering (Qualitative) Data • surveys and questionnaires -tend to seek data on the borderline between quantitative and qualitative; • Interviews (one -to -one or focus group) -they can be used to discover data that can be analysed in semi -quantitative ways (e.g. content analysis can be used to discover which concepts are most often used by interviewees) through to interviews which are led by the interviewees and which are analysed using methods, such as narrative analysis, in which the researcher acknowledges his/her subjectivity and will tend to write in the first person. • participant and non- participant observation ( ethnography); https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBIdwhrnIZw (we will come to this later) • auto-ethnography ; • document research. The basics for most types of qualitative methodologies • Start identifying a research question (leaving hypotheses for quantitative methods.) • Planning fieldwork (e.g. interviews start with designing a schedule); • Carrying out the fieldwork (e.g. observations/interviews/analysis of documents); • Organising the data (including transcribing); • Analysing the data; • Discuss the findings; • Write it up. Interviews: the most popular method of gathering qualitative data • Structured; • Unstructured; • Semi-structured. Types of qualitative research interviews Structured Interviews This is what most of us might call a ‘tick -box questionnaire’. Series of closed (yes/no) or graded (Strongly agree to strongly disagree) questions to survey large numbers and seek to represent an even larger population. Marketing and political polling will often use this type of research. All interviewees asked same questions in same order. Types of qualitative research interviews Unstructured Interviews No fixed route for the interview. Researcher typically wants to learn about a person’s role or work or illness or particular skill. There will be an opening question to start the discussion but from there, the conversation goes where it will with minimal input and influence from the researcher. e.g. “Tell me about your life as chief executive of total solutions” Semi-structured Interviews • By far the most common in qualitative research. • Researcher has a schedule outlining areas to cover and possible avenues of interest. • Actual content is managed in situ according to the actual discussion. Deviation from schedule is permissible if it seems appropriate. Suggestions for preparing interview questions and schedules. Some things to bear in mind as you prepare your questions for a structured or semi- structured questionnaire. 1. Will the respondent understand the question? 2. Will the respondent be able to answer the question? 3. Will the respondent be willing to answer the question? Check points Will they understand? You may have been reading around this subject a while and they may not have the detailed knowledge you do. It is also very easy to be ambiguous. Will they be able to answer? It is easy to ask questions requiring background knowledge or information that your interviewee simply does not have. Will they be willing to answer? Bear in mind, they may be careful what they say if they have possible scenarios in their minds for how information might be used. Check points • Are they able to answer? –only if they understand? • What are they being asked to know? • What judgments might be implied by your question or their answer? • Is the question too long or too complex? • Is the question open enough for varied responses? • How will this help in the analysis phase? Preparing for the interviews. • Type of interview • Purposive or snowball sampling? • How many? • Individuals or focus groups? • Where and when to interview? • How do you want to be perceived by interviewees? • How will you dress to reflect that? Conducting interviews • Introduce yourself and give a little background to the study. • Start with easy questions to put interviewees at ease • Avoid over-long, multiple, leading or ambiguous questions – very difficult to do. • Keep your input to a minimum and don’t interrupt. • Use active listening –respond to what they say • Use easy questions to end. • Ask if they have questions for you or want to say anything about areas you have not asked about. • Remember to thank the interviewee for their time and expertise. 8-Sep -20 After the interview • Make some notes immediately to capture your thoughts and feelings • Beware they may tell you the best thing after the interview finishes. • Transcribe as soon as possible, preferably the same day. • Analyse and perhaps feed back to interviewees but this depends on the interpretive methods and the results. 8 -Sep -20 Transcribing This is the most tedious part of the process (and the only part you can contract out). You will need a transcription machine or programme for your computer, and need to type out every word of every interview, including notes of coughs, laughs, pauses, etc., etc., etc. When Hugh was analysing his doctoral data, an interviewee thumped the table at one point and that became an important part of the analysis. Nancy has developed a method of analysing data that focuses on the pauses (Harding, 2009). 8-Sep -20 8-Sep -20 15 Text Mining 8-Sep -20 16
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