HKIN161-Human Kinetics

657 Deborah R. Shapiro and Brenda G. Pitts are with the Department of Kinesiology and Health, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA. Address author correspondence to Deborah R. Shapiro at [email protected] Journal of Sport Management, 2014, 28, 657-671 http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/JSM.2013-0258 2014 Human Kinetics, Inc. What Little Do We Know: Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature Deborah R. Shapiro and Brenda G. Pitts Georgia State University As the field of sport business management develops, it is critical to assess its literature. A content analysis of 34 sport business management journals between 2002 to 2012 was conducted relative to sports, physical activity, recreation, and leisure for individuals with disabilities. Journals were selected based on their alignme\ nt with sport management curriculum standards. Results show that of the 5,443 articles reviewed in this study, merely 89, or .016%, pertained to disability sport, leisure, recreation, or physical activity. Information insufficiency was found across all sport management curriculum domains. Similarities an\ d differences are discussed relative to other content analyses conducted in sport management and disability sport. Results provide direction for future scholarship and advancement of studies in disability sport in sport business management. Keywords: athletes with disabilities, physical activity, adapted sport, sport business People with disabilities are the worlds largest minority group, the only one any person can join at any time. From the website Disabled World (2013) Athletes with disabilities have been competing in sport for over 100 years. During this time disability sport has gone through extensive professionalization leading to its institutionalization and establishment in society and the sport world (von Sikorski, Schierl, Moller, & Oberhauser, 2012). The number of people with disabili- ties involved in sport and physical recreation is steadily increasing around the world. Athletes with disabilities are demonstrating their athletic abilities and gaining increased recognition in both the able-bodied and dis- ability sport contexts (DePauw & Gavron, 2005; Tynedal & Wolbring, 2013). While not the first person to do so, Oscar Pistorius drew international attention through his fight to participate in the 2012 London Olympic and Paralympic games. Further inclusion of individuals with disabilities into modern day sport has come through the development of the Warrior Games, a disability sport Olympic-style competition developed as a joint project by the U.S. Defense Department and the U.S. Paralympics for wounded, ill, and injured American service members to promote the positive impact that adapted sport can have on veterans living with disabilities (Carden, 2010). The increasing visibility and acceptance of people with disabilities in society along with the expansion and glo- balization of sport, recreation, leisure, and physical activ - ity opportunities for people with disabilities goes a long way toward advancing greater access, opportunity, and inclusion for athletes with disabilities in sport (Fay, 2011). Various terms have been used to describe the involve - ment of people with disabilities in sport including, adapted sports and sports for the disabled. These terms generally do not describe the broad range of activities in which persons with disabilities engage (DePauw & Gavron, 2005). The term disability sport, as used in this article, refers to the broadest context of sport inclusive of competitive sport, recreation, leisure, tourism, physical activity, and rehabilitation for and including people with disabilities. In addition, the term disability for purposes of the present paper was defined in accordance with United States federal laws inclusive of the Rehabilitation Act (1973), the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments (IDEA; 2007), as each of these laws independently and collectively have had a significant impact on people who have traditionally been invisible and/or marginalized in sport settings (Fay, 2011). Printed medias narratives about sports have the ability to define, inform, educate, and influence peoples values, thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes about sport for people with disabilities (Chang, Crossman, Taylor, & Walker, 2011; Tynedal & Wolbring, 2013). Scholars and leaders in the academic discipline of sport business management also fulfill the role of constructing and Official Journal of NASSM www.JSM-Journal.com ARTICLE 658 Shapiro and Pitts transmitting knowledge pertaining to sport for people with disabilities through the dissemination of publica- tions on topics relating to disability sport in scholarly journals (Pitts & Pedersen, 2005). A strong literature base is needed for faculty to effectively infuse information about disability sport related concepts into their sport management courses (Shapiro, Pitts, Hums, & Calloway, 2012) so as to ensure sport management students receive a well-rounded education of the sport business industry inclusive of the disability sport segment in which they may eventually pursue a career. It is questionable whether the sport management journals have kept pace with the changes that have occurred in the world of disability sport or made changes to their coverage of disability sport topics to ensure their relevance to the field of sport management (Pitts & Pedersen, 2005).Sport management scholars challenged the lack of scope in the sport management research and argued for colleagues to reflect on the literature to determine the extent to which the literature accurately reflects the advancements made in the discipline and in the sport business industry (Barber, Parkhouse, & Tedrick, 2001; Olafson, 1990; Pitts, 2001; Pitts & Pedersen, 2005). In 2005, Pitts & Pedersen (2005) emphasized that a body of knowledge should represent the defined field of study and should consist of a minimum body of basic and fundamental knowledge that is commonly possessed by members of the profession (Fielding, Pitts, & Miller, 1991). Sport management scholars have begun to assess the research literature (journals) and textbooks in the field of sport management (Pitts, 2002; Pitts & Danylchuk, 2007; Pitts, Danylchuk, Quarterman, Cianfrone, Howard, & Jackson, 2010; Pitts & Pedersen, 2005; Quarterman, Hwang, Han, Jackson, & Pitts, 2013; Quarterman, Jack- son, & Chen, 2006; Quarterman, Pitts, Jackson, Kim, & Kim, 2005). Attention also has been focused on searching the sport management literature for coverage of specific topics. A study, published in the Journal of Sport Man- agement of 21 sport-related academic journals, sought to determine if the body of literature contains research regarding environmental sustainability (ES; Mallen, Stevens, & Adams, 2011). Mallen et al. found a lack of sport-ES research in the literature sample, with only 17 articles published between 1987 and 2008. Like this latter study, assessing research progress in the area of disability sport may be helpful to contemporary groups with research agendas or academics responsible for the preparation of future sport management professionals (Reid & Prupas, 1998) as it can (a) be used to document the research progress or growth of a field or discipline, (b) keep academicians in tune with the quantity and quality of the research published and the academic leaders in the field, and (c) identify areas for the field to improve upon in the future (Quarterman et al., 2006, 2013). Recent proliferation of publication outlets in the field of sport management specifically, as well as in related subdisciplines such as adapted physical activity, sociol- ogy, and psychology have given authors greater choice in deciding where to submit their articles (Buboltz, Deemer, & Hoffmann, 2010). For example, articles related to coaching womens sport could be published in such journals as Sport, Education & Society, Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, Journal of Intercollegiate Sport or in the Journal of Sport Psychology. The diver - sity of publication outlets may create more publication space for articles in other content domains (i.e., disability sport, recreation, leisure, and physical activity) (Buboltz et al., 2010). In addition, increased accessibility to the internet has afforded researchers the opportunity to read and shape the content of their journals more than ever before (Buboltz et al., 2010). Investigating the research progress related to sport, leisure, recreation and physical activity for individuals with a disability can shed light not only on the maturity of the field of sport management but also on the values and interests of the discipline of sport management toward disability sport (Buboltz et al., 2010; Quarterman et al., 2006). In the current study, we posit that sport business management students should be afforded a curriculum and a body of knowledge inclusive of the vast diversity of the sport industry world, inclusive of disability sport. The purpose of this study was to provide a descriptive analysis of the extent to which the sport business manage- ment literature is addressing the area of disability sport. The following research questions guided this study: (a) Which journals are publishing research pertaining to disability sport? (b) How many and what types of papers have been published pertaining to disability sport? (c) What sport industry segments and management focus areas are most frequently addressed in sport management relating to disability sport? (d) What about disability is addressed in the literature? and (e) Who is conducting research on disability sport? Method Journal Selection This study examined 34 sport management journals from 2002 to 2012. The selection of journals followed a multistep process. A list of 154 journals directly and indirectly related to sport business management was developed from (a) a website labeled sports business journals, (b) a list of journals in Pitts and Stotlar (2013), and (c) journals known to the researchers. Journals were eliminated from the list if they ceased publication, could not be found through library or electronic access, or were published in a language other than English. These criteria reduced the list to 111 journals. The remaining journals were categorized into the Commission on Sport Manage- ment Accreditation (COSMA) Accreditation Manuals common professional component (CPC) topical areas by the second author. This list was sent to three experts in the field of sport management for purposes of developing content validity. Reviewers were asked to indicate first whether the journals listed in the different categories were appropriate for that category and then indicated which journals were considered the primary literature sources in Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 659 each category. Journals were selected for analysis if they were rated by at least two of the three experts as important to a given sport management topic area. Journals rated as important by a single reviewer were not included in this study. A total of 34 journals were rated by at least two of the three or all three experts as important with the remaining journals rated as important by a single expert. The panel of experts did not identify any journals in the topic areas of sport leadership and psychological topics or issues as relevant to the field of sport management. The journal Sport, Ethics, & Philosophy was added to the list by the authors to fill the gap in the literature rep- resentation in this area. The final list of 34 journals and their corresponding sport management content areas are shown in Table 1. Identification of Eligible Articles Key words used in the current study were consistent with those used by Lee and Porretta (2013) and Reid and Prupas (1998) as well as those selected following consultation with a reference librarian to identify an article as relating to disability sport. Key words included the following: handicapped, disabled/disabilities, physically challenged athletes, people with disabilities, disabled athlete, dis- ease, illness, prosthesis, ADA/Rehabilitation Act/laws/ compliance, litigation, access/accessibility, wheelchair sport (inclusive of all sports, i.e., wheelchair basketball, wheelchair track, wheelchair racing, wheelchair rugby), Special Olympics/unified sports, Paralympics/Paralym- pic athletes, adapted sports, sport for all, classification, inclusion/integration, doping, women with disabilities, and specific disability classifications (e.g., paraplegic, intellectual disability, deaf, amputee). Publication titles along with abstracts were examined for key words. The full text of articles was also studied when the use of abstracts alone could not clearly identify article eligibility. The full text of all articles was obtained for analysis by either accessing full electronic files on library databases, assessing journals directly online, or requesting articles through interlibrary loan. The investigation focused on data-based and non-data-based publications published in English language and multilingual journals. A publica- tion was an article in a journal. Data-based publications Table 1 Journals (N = 34) Examined in this Studyas Selected by the Panel of Expertsand the Corresponding COSMA Content Area Sport Management Principles (13): Psychological Topics or Issues (none) European Sport Management Quarterly Ethics in Sport Management (1): International Journal of Sport Management Sport, Ethics & Philosophy International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing Sport Marketing Topics or Issues (2): International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation & Tourism International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship Journal of Contemporary Athletics Sport Marketing Quarterly Journal of Intercollegiate Sport Sport Communication Topics or Issues (2): Journal of Sport Management International Journal of Sport Communication Leisure Sciences Journal of Sports Media Managing Leisure Principles of Sport Finance (1): Sport, Business, and Management: An International Journal International Journal of Sports Finance Sport Management Review Economics of Sport (1): Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal Journal of Sports Economics World Leisure Journal Legal Aspects of Sport (1): Sport Leadership (none) Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport Sport Operations Management / Event & Venue Management (1): Sport Management Education (2): Journal of Venue and Event Management Case Studies in Sport Management Sport Governance (2): Sport Management Education Journal International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics Technology and Sport (1): Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics Sports Engineering Sociological and/or Cultural Topics or Issues (7): European Journal for Sport and Society International Journal of Sport and Society International Review for the Sociology of Sport Journal of Sport and Social Issues Journal of the Philosophy of Sport Sociology of Sport Journal Sport, Education, & Society 660 Shapiro and Pitts comprised quantitative and qualitative research directed by the scientific method. Non-data-based papers refer to scholarly articles grounded in ideas, concepts, theories, and frameworks (Quarterman et al., 2006). Excluded from this review were editorials, research notes, confer- ence presentations, journal abstracts, and book reviews. Content Categories Coding variables were determined through both deduc- tive and inductive procedures. The authors reviewed the categories developed by authors in the sport management field who have conducted content analysis on specific journals as well as literature on content analyses relating to disability sport. The two authors first independently examined five articles selected from sport management journals in years not included in the current study to test the codebook and determine any problematic areas. This precoding process revealed the need for additional categories or subcategories to better capture the disability sportspecific content of the literature before the actual study was performed. For example, in the category of study subjects, non-athletes were further subdivided into coaches, family, spectators, managers, volunteers, college students, PE teachers/school administrators (these latter two were combined because both serve the public school context). Similarly, disability classifications were added when necessary to reflect the full range of disabilities subsumed under the definition of disability used in this study. The same was done for disability sport focus to ensure a clearer understanding of the scope of disability sport examined in the literature. Addi - tional changes were made to clarify the coding protocol, expand on descriptors and add coding options to the code list. For purposes of the current study, participants were categorized as athletes if subjects engaged in any sport, leisure, recreation, or physical activity regardless of the intensity, duration, or frequency of training. If subjects were referred to as participants in a paper, they would be categorized as athletes in this study. Articles were coded in the following content categories through the use of a codebook in Microsoft Excel: Journal Demographics: We identified journal title, volume, issue, year, number of articles in the journal issue and whether the issue covered a special theme. Disability Sport Industry Subsegment: We only analyzed papers whose topic was a Disability Sport Industry Segment. Using sport business industry segments as identified from previous research (Parks, Zanger & Quarterman, 1998; Pedersen, Parks, Quarterman & Thibault, 2010; Pedersen & Pitts, 2001; and Pitts & Stotlar, 2013), we coded for subsegments of the disability sport segment. For example, was the article about disability sport athletes and their inclusion/participation in college sports, professional sports, or campus recreation? A study might have researched the Paralympics, or people with disabilities in college sports, or people with disabilities using sports to improve quality of life. Sport Management Function or Activity Focus: We identified the management function or activity focus of the article to determine what sport management functions were being studied. Some modifications were made to the COSMA main content areas to obtain greater clarity to the topic of study and enhance the examination in relation to precise characteristics of the content of the literature. Those added content areas are Sport Management Education and Technology & Sport, History, Research Methodology, and Facilities (COSMA, 2010; Pedersen & Pitts, 2001; Pitts & Danylchuk, 2007; Pitts et al., 2010). Information About the Paper: Elements of the article and author(s) were identified. These included title, number of pages, number of authors, name of author(s), gender of author(s), institutional affiliation of author(s), location of author(s), and academic/ professional title of author(s). Type of Research Methodology Used in the Study or Article: Identified were the category of method used in the paper/study (i.e., qualitative, quantitative or mixed) and the specific statistical data analysis techniques used (e.g., descriptive, interview, factor analysis, correlation). Type of Study Subjects (If Used): Three categories were identified, athletes/participants, nonathletes, with subcategories inclusive of coaches, family, spectators, fans, managers, volunteers, college stu- dents, PE teachers/school administrators, and studies which did not involve human subjects (e.g., studies examining print media, stock prices). Demographics of Study Subjects: If human subjects were examined in the article, we identified sample size and age of participants. Gender Focus of Article: Coders identified what gender (male, female, combined, no identifiable gender focus) was studied or included in the article. Disability Focus of Article: Specific disability classifications were identified in accordance with the 14 disability classifications in IDEA as well as those more broadly encompassed in the definition of disability in the ADA and Rehabilitation Act Sec- tion 504. Subcategories of disabilities included, for example, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, stroke, traumatic brain injury, intellectual disability, com- bination of multiple disabilities and disability not specified. Disability Sport Focus of Article: To determine what disability sport was included or studied in the articles, coders identified either the specific disabil- ity sports (if given), such as wheelchair basketball, wheelchair rugby, wheelchair tennis, track and field, sit volleyball or the disability sport event such as the Paralympics, Special Olympics or Deaflympics if individual sports were not identified in the articles. Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 661 Procedures Two trained graduate students along with the authors counted the number of articles in each of the 34 jour- nals. Articles identified as relating to disability sport were coded as described above by the authors. Articles were coded independently and then reviewed together. Through discussion, all categories were coded with 100% agreement. Data Analysis Frequencies, percentages, and means were the descriptive statistics used to answer the research questions. Fre- quency data were used to classify the articles according to the sport industry segment, management focus, type of study subjects, disability focus, and disability sport focus. Total scores and percentages also were tabulated for each category coded to examine the primary areas of emphasis of publications. Additional descriptive data pertaining to the number of authors, gender of author and geographical location of authors also was calculated using Microsoft Excel. Results and Discussion Disability Sport in Sport Business Management Journals Results. The 34 journals contained 5,443 articles, of which 89, less than 1% (.016%), are disability sport articles (see Table 2). Table 2 shows the origination year of each journal and/or the included years of this study. Of the 34 journals, 26 (76%) of the journals contained articles about disability sport, while 8 journals (24%) published no articles relating to disability sport, leisure, recreation, or physical activity. Of the 26 journals, six journals published 1 article, and five journals published 2, 3, and 4 articles, respectively. Journals with 5 or more articles on disability sport related topics included the Journal of Sport and Social Issues (n = 5), Leisure Sciences (n = 6), Sport, Education, and Society (n = 6), World Leisure Journal (n = 8), and Sport, Ethics, and Philosophy (n = 13). It is important to recognize that the articles published in these latter journals may reflect the publication of a special topics issue pertaining to disability sport in which a large percentage of the articles about disability sport were published (e.g., Sport, Ethics and Philosophy published 13 articles in a special issue on the Paralympics and Olympics). These are noted in the table. The sport management journals selected in the cur - rent study identified by a panel of experts as those most used and therefore viable to the sport management pro- fessoriate and students, while not exhaustive, represents a valid representation of the list of 111 accessible and English language journals closely related to the field of sport business management and of articles published over the last 10 years from 2002 to 2012 relating to disability sport, recreation, leisure and physical activity. Discussion. Journals specific to disability sport such as Palaestra, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, or Disability and Health Journal, were not selected for use in this study despite their focus on disability as it was unlikely that the content could have been scored using the sport industry and sport management segments and topic areas, owing to the difference in audiences to which these disability sportrelated journals are focused. It is also unclear if the percentage of articles on disability sport in sport psychology, motor behavior, and biomechanics/physiologyrelated journals, also not examined in this study, would have succumbed to the same challenges in classifying content for sport management and if they would have contributed significantly to an increase in the overall percentage of articles addressing disability sport in the broader literature base. Using the sport industry segments and management focus areas, future research can look at the extent to which articles published in disability- specific journals and those in disciplines such as sport psychology, biomechanics, or motor behavior have relevance to the sport management business field. The lack of coverage of disability sport across scholarly journals in the field of sport management models that of disability sport by the print media. A recent study of the New York Times reported minimal coverage of the Paralympics with coverage of the Olympics to be 50 times greater than mentions of the Paralympics (Tynedal & Wolbring, 2013). In 1986 a research subcommittee established by the Committee on Sports for the Disabled identified seven research priorities with the purpose of influencing knowledge and understanding of sport for people with disabilities (DePauw, 1986). These categories, viewed as common to all athletes with disabilities included (a) effects of training and/or competition, (b) selection and training of coaches, volunteers and officials, (c) technological advances, (d) sociological/psychology aspects of sport, (e) similarities and differences among athletes with and without disabilities, (f) demographics of disability sport and (g) legal, philosophical and historical bases for sport. Many of these research priorities are incor - porated into the Commission on Sport Management Accreditation (COSMA) common professional com- ponent (CPC) topical areas required to be covered in a sport management program. Two studies examining the progress of disability sport research in these research priority areas have been conducted. A recent study by Lee and Porretta (2013) found a significant increase in data-based publications between 2002 to 2012 than during the time period of 1986 to 1996 when the first study by Reid and Prupas (1998) was conducted. The findings in the current study suggest that 15 years after the call to increase research on sport for people with disabilities, there remains a lack of a well-established research base in the area of disability sport in the sport management discipline. There is insufficient productiv - ity to significantly advance the field of disability sport in sport management. 662 Table 2 Journals Sorted by Number of Disability Sport Articles, From the Most to the LeastJournal Title Years aDisability Sport Articles Number of Articles Percentage on Disability Sport Total: 89 Total: 5,443 Total: 0.016 Sport, Ethics and Philosophy b 20072012 131570.082 World Leisure Journal c 20022012 8208 0.033 Sport, Education, & Society 200220126250 0.024 Leisure Sciences 200220126266 0.015 Journal of Sport and Social Issues 200220125264 0.018 Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 200220124178 0.022 Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport 200220124900.044 International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 200820124710.056 International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation & Tourism 200220124400.10 International Journal of Sport Communication 200820124122 0.032 Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 200220123148 0.020 Sociology of Sport Journal 200220123225 0.013 Journal of Venue & Event Management 200920123190.157 Journal of Intercollegiate Sport 200820123890.033 International Journal of Sport and Society 200220123114 0.026 Sports Engineering 200220122182 0.011 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship 200220122183 0.010 International Journal of Sport Management 200220122305 0.006 European Sport Management Quarterly 200220122307 0.006 European Journal for Sport and Society 200220122102 0.019 Sport Marketing Quarterly 200220121274 0.003 Sport Management Review 200220121207 0.004 Managing Leisure 200220121192 0.005 Journal of Sports Economics 200220121324 0.003 Journal of Sport Management 200220121239 0.004 International Review for the Sociology of Sport 200220121286 0.003 Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 20112012031 0 Sport Management Education Journal 20072012024 0 Journal of Sports Media 20062012062 0 Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics 20082011068 0 Journal of Contemporary Athletics 200220120117 0 International Journal of Sports Finance 200620120129 0 International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing 200220120260 0 Case Studies in Sport Management 20120 10 0 aThis study included the years 2002 through 2012, or the year in which a \ journal was founded.bThis was one special theme issue.cIn this journal, one special theme issue contained 6 papers. Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 663 Sport Business Industry Segment Studied in the Literature Results. Nearly half (48%) of all papers addressing disability sport focused on participant sport (see Figure 1). The second most common industry segment examined pertained to the Paralympics (15.7%) followed by sport marketing (7.9%), sport communication (6.7%), and health promotion (4.5%). A surprising low number (defined as 2 or fewer or 2%) of articles were found relating to campus recreation, college sports, facilities management, event management, international sports, and marketing and management business. No articles involved research about sporting goods industry or sport management education in relation to disability sport. Discussion. People with disabilities are dispropor - tionately studied across sport management industry segments. It is important, given the preponderance of articles coded as participant sport that this category be flushed-out. In this study, the participant sport segment included studies such as the use of sports to help with depression; the use of dance to help with dementia; kinematic analysis of sit ski; wheelchair racing; how wheelchair athletes challenge discourse on ableism; sport for all in Cyprus; integrating children with disabilities into sports activities; issues of social justice or equity for disabled sport participants; benefits and constraints of people with disabilities in fishing; exercise behavior of youth with disabilities; and mas- culinity and murderball. With regards to participant sport, the results highlight the breadth of activities in which persons with disabilities engage and the vastness of recreational opportunities being provided by commu - nity and private not-for profit organizations around the world whose mission is to advance participation in sport, physical activity, leisure and recreation for persons with disabilities. Limited access to Paralympic athletes and the strong oversight of the IPC research subcommittee on the conduct of research on Paralympic athletes at a Paralympics or qualifying events limits opportunities for sport management faculty to conduct investigations on this industry segment. The lack of research on sport marketing, communication, and professional sports may reflect limited exposure to sport for people with disabilities in western cultures, specifically the United States compared with increased print and visual media coverage of disability sport in Canada, Europe, Austra- lia, and Asia. Similarly, it is not surprising to see a lack of coverage of college sports and campus recreation for persons with a disability as the infrastructure for sport for persons with disabilities in institutions of higher education is virtually nonexistent in most countries and limited in institutions of higher education to sports such as wheelchair basketball, wheelchair track, and wheel - chair tennis. Such limited opportunities for competitive intercollegiate sports may lead to the assumption of campus recreation professionals and facility managers that persons with disabilities on a college campus are few and far between and/or do not require, warrant or solicit recreational or sport services. Figure 1 Disability sport in industry segments in the 89 studies. 664 Shapiro and Pitts Sport Management Function or Activity Focus (Content Area) Studied Results. There is a clear and disproportionate repre - sentation of disability sport topics addressed across the COSMA standards (see Figure 2). The sociological/cul - tural and psychological aspects of disability sport are the most studied aspect in relation to the sport management curriculum standards. The third most studied management area is governance. Of the 89 articles, 8 (9%) involved governing issues. A total of 12 of 89 articles (13%) addressed the combination of sport marketing and sport communication. Lastly, the legal/philosophical/histori - cal dimension of sport for participants with disabilities produced 6 articles, representing 7% of the disability sport literature published in sport management journals. Discussion. The following discussion address the COSMA standards as well as the additional content areas added for purposes of the current study. Articles examining the social and psychological aspects of sport for people with disabilities explored topics such as cul - tural attitudes toward persons with disabilities, discourse about disability, spectator motivation, attitudes of fans, volunteers, and administrators toward persons with dis- abilities, and importance of leisure and sport on quality of life and happiness and social justice. The predominance of this domain is consistent with the findings of Reid and Prupas (1998) and Lee and Porretta (2013), the latter researchers who found 65% of the articles published in their databases during the same 10-year time frame as the present investigation focused on sociological/ psychological topics. Topics subsumed under the sport marketing and com - munication category included print media coverage of the Paralympics and comparisons of women and men with and without disabilities in print media, sponsorship, and Figure 2 Sport management content area studied. Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 665 fan sport consumption behavior. It is important to note that almost exclusively researchers outside of the USA have conducted studies relating to media coverage of the Para- lympics. This may reflect either the lack of coverage of dis- ability sport in the United States print and visual media out- lets, a lack of interest of sport management researchers on this topic, or a lack of convenience for this type of research. Many of these papers on the legal aspects of sport addressed the ADA and Rehabilitation act in terms of compliance toward facility/venue accessibility. Still fewer dealt with issues of program accessibility and opportunity under these laws. These results are not consistent with those of Lee and Porretta (2013) who found that the legal/ philosophical category resulted in 46% of all non-data- based articles between 2002 to 2012. The small number of articles relating to the law may be due to the use of a single law journal in comparison with the review of 12 journals representing sport management/marketing and 7 journals relating to sociological/psychological content areas. While it would not be surprising to find additional articles in other law-related journals, it is unlikely that an increase in articles relating to legal issues in sport would significantly change the overall percentage of disability sportrelated law articles published. Of the over 5,443 articles reviewed, sport governance seemed to be an unfortunately low focus given the fact that it is governing policy that usually guides, and some - times forces, the playing field of sport. There was not a single publication relating to several sport management functions or curricular content areas. Although many are important, perhaps the most noticeable to us as educa- tors was the lack of focus on sport management educa- tion and integrative experienceprovision of disability sport internships involving participants with disabilities. While papers like that published by Shapiro et al. (2012) outlines a theoretical approach with practical examples of how faculty can infuse disability sport into their sport management curriculum, it is challenging to do so when there is a scarcity of information available for faculty to draw from. Type of Research Used in the Disability Sport Papers Results. Of the 89 disability sportrelated articles reviewed in the current study, three-fourths, or 68 articles (76%), used qualitative/conceptual research methods whereas 19 articles (21%) used a quantitative research approach. Two articles were identified as using a mixed- methods approach. Analysis of the statistical data techniques used by authors shows that within the qualitative methods category, 48 of the 68 studies, or 70%, used descriptive and theoretical methods followed by 12 studies (18%) using interview (see Figure 3). In the quantitative methods category, the most frequently used methods were descriptive statistics (mean, frequencies and percentages) in 8 out of 19 articles (42%) and factor analysis in 5 of 19 articles (26%) (see Figure 3). Figure 3 Research methodologies used in the studies (n = 89). 666 Shapiro and Pitts Discussion. The percent contribution of qualitative and data-based papers in the current study differs from those reported by Reid & Prupas (1998) who reported 53% and 47% of disability sport articles published between 1986 to 1996 were review and data-based papers, respectively. Lee and Porretta (2013) reported a 28% increase in the number of data based papers on disability sport published between 2002 to 2012 such that in the same time frame as the present investigation 74% of research papers on disability sport were data based-publications with 25% being qualitative in nature. Quarterman and colleagues (2013) in a review of the IJSM during the same time frame as the current study and that by Lee and Porretta (2013) reported that 74% of the papers published in IJSM were quantitative research articles with 22% of the articles being qualitative and/or conceptual in nature. Similar findings were reported by Pitts and Pedersen (2005) in their analysis of the Journal of Sport Management in which they reported 68% and 32% of articles to have used quantitative and qualitative methods of research, respectively. Larger numbers of review type papers tend to be more common in a younger field and may reflect the budding interest in disability sport in the field of sport management. The popularity of using descriptive statistical techniques in the current study is consistent with the findings of statistical data analysis techniques employed in the Sport Marketing Quarterly between 1992 and 2004 (Quarterman et al., 2005) and by Pitts and Pedersen (2005) in their analysis of the Journal of Sport Management. The 19 articles using quantitative analyses in the current study averages out to roughly two per year, an insufficient productivity to advance the field significantly. More rigorous quantitative research is needed to further develop and increase the credibility of the disability sport discipline within the sport management field. Human Subjects Several questions were examined about human subjects studied in the 89 disability sport articles identified in the current study. Questions included the following: How many studies used human subjects? What ages and gen - ders were included? What categories of human subjects were studied (participants vs. nonparticipant)? Of the nonathlete/participants, who was studied (i.e., who are the nonparticipants)? What research methods were used with human subjects? How many studies used athletes/ participants or nonathletes/participants human subjects? And, what was the gender of the human subjects? Results. Findings revealed that 42 studies (47%) used human subjects while 47 articles (53%) did not use human subjects. Age reported in the studies ranged from all adults (defined as individuals 18 years of age and older) to children (ages 8 to 12 years), with adults comprising the largest population studied (53%) (see Figure 4a). A total of 27% of articles did not provide information regarding the age of the human subjects described in the respective studies. Of the 42 studies t hat involved human subjects, 25 articles (60%) were of athletes (people participating in sports activities) and 17 (40%) of the articles involved nonathletes. The nonathlete demographic consisted of physical education teachers, college students, general population, managers/ administrators, spectators, and volunteers (see Figure 4b). There were no studies in which coaches or family members were the focus of the research. The gender of the human subjects in the 42 articles coded as using human subjects resulted in 43% of articles providing no indication of gender. A total of 38% of arti - cles combined males and females in the sample, with an equal number 9.5% of articles focusing only on women or men, respectively. Of the athlete/participants studied in the disability sport literature, 8% of the articles studied males, 16% examined females, 50% of articles said they included both men and women in their sample and 26% of articles provided no indication of the gender of the human subjects. Among the articles in which nonathlete participant groups were the focus, the results differed from the athlete population sampled in the literature. A total of 11% of articles involving nonathletes focused on men, 22% of articles looked at both men and women and 67% of articles provided no indication of the gender of human subjects. There were no studies that considered only women nonparticipants in their sampling. Human subjects were used more often with a quali - tative research methodology than with manuscripts using a quantitative analysis (62% and 33%, respectively). Of the human subjects used in qualitative research method- ology, 65% (17) were athletes/participants, while 35% (9) were nonathletes/participants. Of the 14 studies in which quantitative methodologies were used, half involved athletes/participants and the other half nonathletes. Of the 2 studies in which mixed methodologies were used, an equal number involved athletes/participants and nonathletes/participants. Discussion. In regard to human subjects studied, the findings show a nearly equal percent of papers utilizing human subjects to those not using human subjects. While it is important to study administrative elements of dis- ability sport, we would posit that it is equally important, if perhaps not more important, to study human subjects in disability sport for the sport management field. Pitts and Stotlar (2013) state that human interest is the singu - lar reason sports exist and it is therefore imperative to study humans in sport to understand this phenomenon and increase success in sport business. The number of disability related articles combining males and females into the sample reflects a common practice in disability sport research. Often times, to obtain a large enough sample of people with disabilities, it is necessary to combine men and women in the analysis. The finding that men and women were studied equally in the dis- ability sport literature differs considerably from reports in the sport management field in which sports involving males purports to dominate the literature (Pedersen & P i t t s , 2 0 01). Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 667 Gender of Focus in the Papers Gender Focus attempted to determine if the authors stud- ied mens sports, womens sports, or both. For instance, a study on Paralympic athletes is a study on both mens and womens sports (unless otherwise noted by the author), whereas a study on womens wheelchair basketball is a study on a womens sport. Results. Of the 89 papers, 70% (62) did not specify a focus on gender, whereas 21% (19) had a focus on both, 6% (5) focused on womens sports, and 3% (3) focused on mens sports. Discussion. The gender focus of the disability sport articles identified in the current study differ significantly from that reported by Pedersen and Pitts (2001) and by Pitts and Pedersen (2005) who reported 41% and 47% of articles in their respective studies did not have an identifiable gender focus. These differences may in part be reflected by the different journals surveyed in these papers. The lack of identifiable gender focus in the current study is a significantly higher percentage than the disability sport papers identified in the extent sport management literature. There is some discrepancy in the sport management literature as to whether more stud- ies identified both genders as the focus in the literature or whether the larger percentage of articles focused on male sports. For example, Pitts and Pedersen (2005) reported 58% of articles to have identified a combined gender focus with 31% focusing on male sport. Peder - sen and Pitts (2001), however, reported 28% of articles examining male sports with 24% of articles combining genders. The results of the current study differ in that a combined gender focus was second followed by a focus on women and lastly on males in the research. Research on both genders, and focus on womens sports and mens sports to determine the state of each one in comparison with the other is necessary. Furthermore, comparisons can be made between womens and mens sports in regard to every area of sport management such as, sport marketing, facilities, governance, legal aspects, and financing issues. Figure 4 Human subjects studied in the 89 papers. 668 Shapiro and Pitts Disability Sport Focus of the Papers Results. Of the 89 disability sport related articles reviewed in the current study, three-fourths (67, 74%) did not specify a focus on a particular disability sport, whereas one quarter (26%, 22) studied a specific disability sport (see Figure 5). Athletics was the focus in 5 articles (6%) followed by wheelchair basketball and wheelchair rugby both with 3 articles. Two articles each addressed Special Olympics, wheelchair racing, and multiple sports. Other sports the focus of one paper each were boxing, golf, fishing, sit skiing, and weight training. Discussion. The number and type of sports for people with disabilities are growing. Yet, a large number of the papers (74%) do not specify a particular sport. The popu - larity of athletics and wheelchair basketball are consistent with the visibility of Paralympic sports reported in the New York Times newspaper (Tynedal & Wolbring, 2013). With the exception of skiing, we found no coverage of winter sports or activities. We also found an absence of articles addressing several popular disability sports such as wheelchair tennis, sit volleyball, swimming, and sledge hockey among many other sport and recreation offerings available to people with a disability. Disability Focus of Publications Results. Athletes with spinal cord injuries ( n = 4, 4%), intellectual disabilities ( n = 3, 3%), and amputations ( n = 2, 2%) were the focus of 9 of 89 publications over the 10-year period (see Figure 6). A total of 2 articles (2%) reported on athletes with a combination of disabilities inclusive of cerebral palsy, spina bifida, spinal cord injury, and amputations. Of importance is the number of articles that did not specify the type of disabilities participants had ( n = 61 or 69%) or were categorized as other ( n = 8 or 9%) and included for example, dementia, depression and polio. There were no articles found to address athletes with dwarfism or those with visual and/ or hearing impairments. Discussion. The representation of athletes across the journals currently reviewed were similar to those fre - quencies reported by Reid and Prupas (1998). In their review of databases between 1986 and 1996, athletes with nonspecific disabilities comprised 67% of the published literature, with 8.7% of papers addressing spinal cord paralysis, 4.8% of the literature addressing persons with an intellectual disability, 1.3% focused on athletes with amputations and 5.2% addressing a sample of persons with multiple disabilities. Coverage of dis- abilities in the New York Times newspaper reported the greatest focus on athletes with amputations, blindness and paralysis, respectively, with little coverage paid to athletes with cerebral palsy, visual impairments, intel - lectual disabilities, hearing impairments and autism (Tynedal & Wolbring, 2013). The high number of papers that did not specify the type of disabilities of the human Figure 5 Disability Sport studied in the papers. Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 669 subjects is a limitation of the data collection procedures and makes it difficult to generalize the findings and for future researchers to replicate and build upon previously published research (Reid & Prupas, 1998). Explanations for the frequency of papers in the sport management journals and in the print media may be attributed to several factors including number of potential athletes, access to athletes, ease of data collection, and number of researchers knowledgeable about and interested in a specific disability (Reid & Prupas, 1998). Geographical Location, Gender, and Number of Authors Country of origin, business affiliation, and gender of authors were examined for all disability sportrelated articles identified in the 34 journals surveyed in this study. Results. Authors in the current study represented a total of 16 countries. The number of countries underscores an international commitment to disability sport. The pre - dominance of the literature comes from the USA ( n = 9 7, 53%), Canada and the UK ( n = 29, 14% each), followed by Australia and Germany ( n = 7, 4% each) and Norway ( n = 5, 3%). Researchers in the following countries published less than 2% of the disability sport related articles: Italy, Slovenia, Denmark, France, Netherlands, South Korea, Sweden, Cyprus, Ghana, and Israel. In the current study, a total of 197 authors, some of whom have contributed to multiple disability related articles, contributed to the publication of the 89 disability related articles, with 95% of the authors affiliated with a University in their respective country. The gender identity of authors was predominantly male (61%) with 33% of authors being female. The gender identity of 6% of authors could not be determined. Discussion. Reid and Prupas (1998) reported publi - cations from 20 countries. It is important to note that their review included both English and French language publications while the current study only included articles published in English language journals. Thus, it cannot be concluded that there are fewer countries with researchers examining disability sport than there were in 1998. The order of countries producing disability sport related literature was the same as that reported by Reid and Prupas (1998) who similarly found that the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, France, and the Netherlands were the six countries with the highest rate of disability sportrelated publications. Conclusions Over the past three decades there has been a proliferation of outlets for theoretical literature within the field of sport management. This paper examined almost three dozen scholarly publications in an attempt to describe the area of disability sport in sport management. The results of the present investigation suggest that sport management scholars and professionals do not identify the field of disability sport, leisure, recreation, and physical activity for persons with a disability as part of the sport business industry. Less than one tenth of all articles published address disability sport. The small number of sport scientists actively studying disability sport also may contribute to the insufficient productivity to advance the field significantly (Reid & Prupas, 1998). These results provide empirical evidence that the discipline of sport management is falling short in providing literature repre - sentative of people with disabilities. There is much work to do to advance this area of study within the sport busi - ness industry. While it was not the intent of this article to Figure 6 Disability focus in the studies. 670 Shapiro and Pitts focus on why disability is so poorly represented, it is clear that topics in a journal reflect the professional training and/or interests of the authors (Lee & Porretta, 2013). As argued by Pitts and Pedersen (2005), personal interest does not excuse the field from providing an appropriate body of literature. Their argument that journal editors and academicians should bear the responsibility as they are accountable for shaping and providing the appropri- ate sport management education, respectively, is further supported by the authors of the current study. Editors and researchers do not need to change their research interests or questions, rather they should consider collaborations with those with expertise in disability sport, leisure, recreation and physical activity from related disciplines such as adapted physical education, sport psychology, social anthropology, athletic training, and therapeutic recreation to address these same questions with an eye toward disability. This proactive approach would be more productive than waiting for submitted ideas on theme issues or the odd disability related article to advance the field of knowledge. Future Directions for Research and Practice We did not determine why authors made the choice of selecting the specific segments to study. The current study has revealed, however, the gaps and voids for which disability sport has not been studied. Future research could involve examination in these areas to provide the literature a more inclusive approach to the study of disability sport in relation to the field of sport manage - ment. In light of recent efforts of government to stipulate accessibility and inclusion for people with disabilities into all sport domains, scholars in sport management should consider making an effort to study the many facets of disability sport, perhaps even considering policy to encourage research such as, formal addition of disability sport management to the sport management curriculum guidelines, special issues in sport management journals about disability sport and disability sport management, conference sessions about infusing disability sport into the classroom and curriculum, and conference sessions about the disability sport industry and jobs. On a practical level, to facilitate collaborations among faculty with expertise in disability and sport management, NASSM board of directors is encouraged to develop a subcommittee to compile a list of scholars, their areas of expertise and their institutional affiliations so that faculty with an interest in disability sport can reach out to those with well-established lines of research in this area. This has the potential to not only enhance the knowledge base in the field but can facilitate cross-cultural studies of similarities, differences and strategies to better address the needs of athletes with disabilities and the preparation of future sport management professionals. In addition, there seems to be no unified or strategic line of inquiry. It appears that research is dissimilar and unrelated. Thus, we recommend development of a model or an agenda for research to guide the fields scholars and researchers in addressing the gap of research on disability sport and disability sport management. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge Stephen Duong and Nikebra Goodlow for their hard work and dedication to this project. References Barber, E., Parkhouse, B.L., & Tedrick, T. (2001). A critical review of the methodology of published research in the Journal of Sport Management from 1991 through 1995 as measured by selected criteria. International Journal of Sport Management, 2(3), 216 236. Buboltz, W., Deemer, E., & Hoffmann, R. (2010). Content analysis of the journal of counseling psychology: Buboltz, Miller and Williams (1999) 11 years later. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57 (3), 368 375 10.1037/ a0020028. doi:10.1037/a 0 0 2 0 0 28 Carden, M.J. (2010, May 13). Adaptive sports, Warrior Games bring families together. U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved from ht t p://www.defense.gov/ News/ NewsA r - ticle.aspx?ID=59150 Chang, I.Y., Crossman, J., Taylor, J., & Walker, D. (2011). One world, one dream: A qualitative comparison of the newspaper coverage of the 2008 Olympic and Paralympic Games. International Journal of Sport Communication, 4, 2 6 49. COSMA (Commission on Sport Management Accreditation). (2 010). Commission on Sport Management Accredita - tion: Accreditation Manual . Retrieved from http://www. cosmaweb.org/ DePauw, K.P. (1986). Research on sport for athletes with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 3, 292299. DePauw, K.P., & Gavron, S.J. (2005). Disability Sport (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Disabled World. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.disabled- world.com / Fay, T. (2011). Disability in sportIts our time: From the sidelines to the frontlines (Title IXB). Journal of Inter- collegiate Sport, 4, 6394. Fielding, L.W., Pitts, B.G., & Miller, L.K. (1991). Defining quality: Why should educators in sport management programs be concerned about accreditation? Journal of Sport Management , 5, 117. Lee, J., & Porretta, D.L. (2013). Documentary analysis of sport literature for individuals with disabilities. Percep - tual and Motor Skills, 116, 847858. doi:10.2466/15.06. PMS.116.3.847-858 Mallen, C., Stevens, J., & Adams, L.J. (2011). A content analysis of environmental sustainability research in a sport-related journal sample. Journal of Sport Manage - ment, 25, 240 256. Olafson, G.A. (1990). Research design in sport management: Whats missing, whats needed? Journal of Sport Man- agement, 4, 103 12 0. Content Analysis of Disability Sport in Sport Management Literature 671 Parks, J.B., Zanger, B., & Quarterman, J. (1998). Contemporary sport management . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pedersen, P.M., Parks, J.B., Quarterman, J., & Thibault, L. (2 010). Contemporary Sport Management . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pedersen, P. M., & Pitts, B. G. (2001). Investigating the body of knowledge in sport management: A content analysis of the Sport Marketing Quarterly. The Chronicle of Physical Education in Higher Education, 12(3), 89, 2223. Pitts, B.G. (2001). Sport management at the millennium: A defin - ing moment. Journal of Sport Management , 15(1), 19. Pitts, B.G. (2002). Examining sport management scholarship: An historical review of the Sport Marketing Quarterly. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 11(2), 8492. Pitts, B.G., & Danylchuk, K.E. (2007). Examining the body of knowledge in sport management: A preliminary descrip- tive study of current sport management textbooks. Sport Management Education Journal, 1, 4052. Pitts, B.G., Danylchuk, K.E., Quarterman, J., Cianfrone, B., Howard, M., & Jackson, E.N. (2010). Sport management literature: A content analytic examination of the European Sport Management Quarterly and its predecessor the Euro - pean Journal for Sport Management. Paper presented at the European Association for Sport Management, Prague, Czech Republic. Pitts, B.G., & Pedersen, P.M. (2005). Examining the body of scholarship in sport management: A content analysis of the Journal of Sport Management. The Sport Management and Other Related Topics (SMART) Journal, 2(1), 3352. Pitts, B.G., & Stotlar, D.K. (2013). Fundamentals of sport marketing (4th ed.). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Informa- tion Technology Publishers. Quarterman, J., Hwang, J.Y., Han, K., Jackson, E.N., & Pitts, B.G. (2013). Statistical Data Analysis Techniques Utilized in International Journal of Sport Management. Interna- tional Journal of Sport Management, 14(3), 296316. Quarterman, J., Jackson, E.N., & Chen, Y. (2006). An analysis of leading contributors to the journal of sport management: 1987-2002. The Sport Management and Related Topics Journal, 2, 2234. Quarterman, J., Pitts, B.G., Jackson, E.N., Kim, K., & Kim, J. (2005). Statistical data analysis techniques employed in Sport Marketing Quarterly: 1992 to 2004. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 14(4), 227238. Reid, G., & Prupas, A. (1998). A documentary analysis of research priorities in disability sport. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 15, 168178. Shapiro, D.R., Pitts, B.G., Hums, M.A., & Calloway, J. (2012). Infusing disability sport into the sport management cur - riculum. Sport Management International Journal, 8(1), 101118. Tynedal, J., & Wolbring, G. (2013). Paralympics and its athletes through the lens of the New York Times. Sports, 1, 13-16. doi:10.3390/sports1010013. Von Sikorski, C., Schierl, T., Moller, C., & Oberhauser, K.P. (2012). Visual news framing and effects on recipients attitudes towards athletes with physical disabilities. International Journal of Sport Communication, 5, 6986. Copyright ofJournal ofSport Management isthe property ofHuman Kinetics Publishers, Inc. and itscontent maynotbecopied oremailed tomultiple sitesorposted toalistserv without the copyright holder'sexpresswrittenpermission. However,usersmayprint, download, or email articles forindividual use.