International Convention To Decrease Conflict: An Analysis Of The Principle Of Common But Differentiated Responsibility

Background of International Environmental Law

Discuss about the International convention to decrease the conflict.

Environmental policy is one of the contentious and rancorous factors that have been under continuous debate since decade. There has been various researches regarding the association between the environmental law and economic development, however most of them has failed to judge the level of association properly.  According to the various researchers, there is high level of association between these two variables, where as some researches contradicts the very idea. Researchers like Chong, Qin and Xinyue, argues that either through direct or in the indirect way environmental laws aids the economy to avail sustainability and eco friendly growth[1]. When it comes to the economic development process of various countries, then according to the developed nations, economic growth comes at an expense of environment.

Across the world, there is an identification that the environmental condition is decreasing and hence, it needs special attention and also some legal protections. Thus, most of the countries, both developed as well as developing one, are coming together to formulate some protocols since 1960s to protect the environment, worldwide. This report is meant to analyse the international law and the environment through analyzing the practical and legal issues of the Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility. The chief focus of this paper is to look at instruments derived from the principle that have generated based on those chief negotiated instruments. Hence, this paper intends to discuss about the implementation of those principles in the selected instruments and some other legal and practical issues that prevent the growth of those agreements.

International Environmental Law (IEL) states about the controlling of pollution and wastage of natural resources under the concept of sustainable development[2]. IEM is a part of public international law, an institution of law, which different states have created to supervise various inter-state related problems. IEL is a broad concept that deals with biodiversity, ozone depletion, population, pollutions related to air, land, water, and nuclear damage and so on that relate with nature or climate. International environmental law has been evaluated since 1970 and can be divided chiefly into three phases, viz., traditional era, modern era and post-modern era.

According to the Cleveland, with rise in production and consumption, higher level of inputs will be required and it will lead to exploitation of natural resources. During this period it has been observed that gross product is increased by 0.2% on average with the increase in environmental regulation[3]. On the other hand, researchers argue that, though there were rise in gross production after implying the environmental laws during initial period, however it is affecting the world economy nowadays. Researches during this period argues that it has been found that excessive amount of industrialisation during the 1970 caused increased amount of waste that lead to diminishing quality of environment. Besides this, it has diminished the sustainability of biosphere, thus stringent environmental laws came in.

Environmentalism and economic growth 1970 – 1989

During this period environmental degradation was at its peak due to lack of confined and worldwide framework for environmental laws. Greenhouse gas emission was affecting the whole world’s economy and reducing the same by 3% annually[4]. Besides this, due to rise in greenhouse gas emission water level has also been raising leading to loss of resource like land and capital. Thus UNFCC took ratifying act through Kyoto protocol and enacted the participating countries to reduce the greenhouse gas emission to a certain level for better sustainability and higher growth.

In recent days environmental factors are taken as one of the key element for the production. Firms are aimed to reduce their level of carbon emission through utilising the newer and greener technologies. In the case of developed nations, environmental laws are presently acting as the tool to restrict the growth of the developing nations, due to the fact the developing nations lack in technology and resource. Thus, according to the Robert V Percival and others, recent stringent environmental laws are aimed to reduce the carbon emission level and restrict the environmental degradation to a great extend at a cost of slower growth of the developing nations[5].

Principle of common but differentiated responsibility has occurred in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. This is the first global legal instrument for addressing climate change and the most comprehensive global attempt for addressing negative effects on the global environment. According to this principle, all the nations need to possess shared obligation for addressing environmental destruction; however, it denies identical responsibility of all nations in relation to environmental protection[6]. The principle of CBDR has remained the key factor for many negotiated instruments. The principle has tried to emphasize the collective responsibility of all countries worldwide, for protecting of the environment by controlling the emissions of green house gasses[7]. It also considers the different capacity of developed and developing countries for dealing with various issues, which are related to protect the environment based on technological and financial capabilities.

CBDR is considered worldwide, that greenhouse gasses are the main factors for changing climate, which is facing by all countries, at present. This is becoming a serious issue as many countries are facing serious problems like droughts, floods, land degradation, heat waves and tropical cyclone that can increase the mortality rate as decrease the food security among many courtiers[8]. Hence, the international community meets on a regular basis to agree on fundamental instruments for ensuring that all countries are participating to solve this problem. During the first Rio Earth Summit in 1992, CBDR was granted by the international governments, which entails that in case of global environmental degradation, different states has common but differentiated responsibilities. Though each country is responsible for the environmental degradation, however different states have different abilities to contribute in the project, which aims to gauge the deteriorating environmental condition. However, this summit has received immense criticism from worldwide nations. This is because the world could not have two separate categories of nations having various responsibilities. The nations need to follow segregation of a continuum, in which they are needed to act vigorously based on their own circumstances. Thus, common responsibility needs to be emphasised all the nations rather than a group of nations taking more dominant responsibility.              

Environmentalism and economic growth 1992 – 2008

The principle of CBDR has two fundamental objectives. The first objective states about the common responsibility of a nation for the protecting entire environment or a segment of it, at the international, state or regional levels[9]. The second objective talks about various circumstances, regarding contribution of each country for evaluating some environmental issues and its ability to protect for reducing and controlling the threat in near future.

The Rio Declaration, a short document, was produced at the “Conference on Environment and Development” (UNCED) or the Earth Summit in 1992[10]. This declaration had 27 principles for controlling countries regarding sustainable development in future and over 170 countries signed that. To deal with sustainable development, those 27 principles were constructed based on different aspects of environmental issues[11].

The first principle had considered human beings as the chief concern for sustainable development to give them a productive and healthy life, while the second law was based on some principles of international law and the Charter of the United Nations. According to that law, a nation could fully utilize its resources by implementing their excusive environmental and developmental policies, where they could not hamper other country’s environment. This principle has two-facet elements. Initially it states about the common responsibility, that is, all countries need to co-operate to prevent the environmental degradation and reduction of green house gas emissions and on the other side it argues for shared responsibility to reduce the carbon emission. With the Rio decleration came the principal of CBDR, which argues that though all the countries are responsible for the emission, however different countries need to take different amount of responsibility to gauge the situation depending upon their capability. This  

This multilateral environment based agreement, which was agreed on 1985 at the Vienna Conference, was actively implemented in 1988. This treat that had earned huge success, was signed by 197 countries, mainly members of all United Nations and the European Union[12].

The chief purpose of this treaty was to prevent the ozone layer with international efforts by implementing research, systematic observations and information exchange regarding the human activities that could affect this layer. Moreover, according to this treaty, member countries could adopt different administrative measures legislative to protect those activities, which had negative implications of this ozone layer[13]. This protocol tried to germinate the CBDR through shared responsibility framework for mitigating the the issue of depleting ozine layer, however failed to do so. Instead of taking any concrete actions for controlling the ozone layer, countries had agreed the Montreal Protocol to advance the goal of protecting the ozone layer.

Environmentalism and economic growth 2008 – Present day

Additionaly, the treaty had some loopholes, for instance, lack of legal bindings to control the usage of CFCs and some important chemicals that could deplete ozone, for instance, chlorine nitrate (CIONO₂) and hydrogen chloride (HCI)[14].

This international treaty was based on ozone layer to prevent the production of some components that hamper the ozone layer. This treaty was agreed in 1987 and was come into action in 1989[15]. After practically implementing this treaty, the world was facing a positive outcome, for instance, the ozone hole, which had been observed in Antarctica, is recovering slowly. As the agreement was successfully adopted by all countries through shared responsibility it had become a well-known example of international co-operation.

This treaty was formed around various groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that exhaust ozone layers. Hence, this Montreal Protocol controlled those ozone-depleting materials that chiefly contained bromine and chlorine. However, there were some other harmful materials, for instance, nitrous oxide (N2O), which were not controlled by this protocol[16]. According to this treaty, each group of ozone-depleting materials needed to maintain a timetable above which production of those materials should be eliminated.

The Kyoto Protocol was also an international agreement, which was related to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate change. In 1997, this protocol was adopted in Japan and has come into action in 2005. At present, 192 parties are following this protocol. This agreement engages its member countries to set an international target for controlling emissions. As developed countries are the chief producers of green house gases due to their developed industrial sectors, which are operating for 150 years, this protocol has become very expensive for those countries, based on the principle “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities”. This protocol has followed some steps to monitor on emission targets, for instance, by maintaining registry systems, reporting, compliance, adaption and adaption funds, parties have maintained their emissions records.

The Kyoto protocol has huge importance as it helps to stabilize the amount of greenhouse gases at international level by reducing its emissions. In addition to this, the treaty has provided a structure for the next international agreement, based on climate change.

The Paris Agreement was adopted by various countries to control climate change at the 21^st Conference of the Parties (COP21) of the United Nations Climate Change Conference (UNCCC) in 2015[17]. Under this agreement, each plans, determines and regulates reports of their own contribution to mitigate global warming, which supports the CBDR principal. Hence, without any specific mechanism, the country needs to maintain some specific target within some specific date depending upon their capability. As the shared responsibility of carbon emission France, at the same year, has decided to ban all vehicles that use petrol and diesel under its five years plan and the country has announced about the reduction of coal for electricity production after 2022[18].       

Principle of common but differentiated responsibility

Under the purview of CBDR, Article 2, of Paris agreement mentioned three aims of described by the UNFCCC that each member countries need to follow. Firstly, all parties of this agreement are trying to control the increasing temperature above preindustrial level of the world below 2^o C and to maintain this further at 1.5^o C for controlling the increasing temperature[19]. Secondly, countries need to adopt the ability to sustain within the negative impacts regarding climate change by controlling climate flexibility and by maintaining low level of greenhouse gas emissions in such a way that it cannot hamper the food production. Thirdly, the agreement tries to make consistent flows of finance for developing various methods to control the emission of greenhouse gases and to develop climate flexibility. This highlights that, after almost three decade of CBDR, it really has came into existence, where different countries have to take different responsibility depending upon their ability.

In 1968, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) has received an idea from Sweden to arrange a world conference based on the inter relation between human and environment.  In 1972, this conference was held in Stockholm of Sweden where 113 countries along with 400 non-government organizations and 1500 journalists had participated[20]. This conference was one of the major one of the UN that focused on environmental issues. This meeting, which took the first initiative toward sustainability revolution, had set up 26 principles and an action plan that had 109 recommendations[21].

The principle theme of that conference was to consider the relation between environmental and human being with huge importance and to achieve some international and common principles for the purpose of environmental protection[22]. This declaration also gave huge importance on enrichment and preservation of human environment.

In this context, it is beneficial to describe some important principles under that declaration. Firstly, it was said that human rights needed to be maintained worldwide by criticizing apartheid and colonialism. Secondly, the declaration gave importance on the safeguard of natural resources. Thirdly, all countries tried to maintain a higher capacity regarding the production of renewable resources. Fourthly, the principle stated about the safeguard of wildlife. Fifthly, non-renewable resources were shared within countries in such a manner that those were not exhausted by its excessive use[23]. Sixthly, it was stated that the pollution level was remained under a certain level that environment could clear it by its own. There were some other principles, which were stated about the control of ocean pollution, improving of environmental policy and some other statements, related to concerns about of the environment and the process to develop it. This conference, for the first time, had focused on the importance of the poverty eradication for protecting the environment.

Definition

The UNFCCC was another international treaty, which was adopted in 1992 though it came into action in 1994 after ratifying by sufficient number of countries. The chief objective of the UNFCCC was to stabilize the concentrations of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere at a particular level so that the environment could prevent anthropogenic interference that could be dangerous, based on climate system[24]. However, this treaty did not set any binding levels for each country on emissions of greenhouse gas and did not contain any enforcement mechanisms. Instead of that, the treaty had built an outline for some specific international agreements could be ranked to take further actions to fulfill the objectives of the UNFCCC.

Based on environment, developing countries have affected more because of climate change, compare to developed countries, while those developed countries are chiefly responsible for generating huge amount of greenhouse gases. Hence, according to the CBDR principle, those developed countries, which are generating green house gasses by a large amount, have also the capacity to decrease those from the environment by a significant amount and for this; those countries need to take a huge burden for controlling the variation of climate[25]. Under the application of Kyoto Protocol of CBDR, this statement is considered with huge importance. However, it is essential to state that after technological transformation, various countries are contributing significant amount of greenhouse gasses. Thus, the statement cannot be agreed at present, as many developing countries are also generating those gasses and for this, those developing countries need to bear the same responsibility.

In addition to this, CBDR has expected assistance of developed countries for poverty eradication, because their performance related work has greatly influences this eradication process. However, there were some weak points to measure the Target 8A and also the international community’s underperformance under MDG 8 for which, CBDR is unequally applied in the field of poverty eradication[26]. Moreover, CBDR cannot be implemented successfully for eradicating poverty some another reasons, that is, developed countries have not provided its complete report on poverty as they do not want to disclose the nature of poverty, which they have within their economy. The standard of living of poor people in developed countries is better compare to that of developing countries. However, in developed countries, those poor people are facing same kind of exclusion and working barriers.

Economic development is a continuous process, which can be gained through the constant industrialisation and with the utilisation of the resources properly. However, in recent days, it has been seen that the third world or the developing countries has fall sort of their estimated economic development leading to various factors. Historically it has been observed that developed nations have caused more than 79% of carbon emission[27]. Out of this 40% has emission has been originated from the European Union and next to this US alone is responsible for 22% of the carbon emission[28]. Through the period of industrialisation, developed nations have exploited the environment without any restrictions and now the phase has been changing. Developing nations are substantially producing carbon emission, which is rising day by day to their development programs. China is accounted for 9% of emission, where as Latin America and Middle East is producing 6% of total carbon emission. Depending upon the total carbon emission, various organisations have grouped the countries[29]. For instance, according to 2016 data, China, US and India are the first three countries that produce highest amount of carbon emission, which makes them tier 1 countries when it comes to carbon emission[30]. According to the same source, Russia, Germany and EU 28 comes under the tier 2, -which produces 6.9 tons of carbon-di-oxide per person.

Origins

At present, developing countries are generating huge amount of green house gasses but at the same time, the huge portion of cumulative emissions of those gases are still coming from the developed countries. According to some statistical data, developed countries have generated almost 70% gasses in this world from 1751 to 2010. When it comes to environmental obligation of the developed nations, then it has been found that, since Rio declaration, the very idea of Principle of common but differentiated responsibility has emerged. Developed countries use the tool of environmental policies as the Pandora’s Box to exploit the growth and capability of the developing nations. According to the statistics, seven of the developed nations namely, US, Russia, Germany, Japan, Canada, China and South Korea are accountable for the 60.4% of the total carbon emission[31]. Historically, level of exploitation of the resource and capital by the developed nations is high that has provided them the scope to become where they are now. According to the United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, developed nation use the 85% of the world resource and cause 33.376 million of greenhouse gas globally[32]. Moreover, industrialisation has aided the developed nation to have enough money for R&D to develop eco friendly technologies that can emit less environment polluting agent.  Considering this, it can be stated that, developed nations are historically responsible for the environmental dilemma in present days.

Various factors have caused the slow growth of the economic development in the developing nations. For instance, there is acute shortage in technological development in the developing nations and the resource constraint has also hampered its growth[33]. However, recent researches highlights that environmental factors are also responsible for the slow economic growth of the third world countries. International environmental treaties along with other environmental commitments in force today are insufficient in nature to manage the economic environmental obligation and growth of the developing nations.

After urbanization and industrialization, all developed countries are presently situated at the post-industrial stage and also share some basic characteristics. They are already developed and for this, the amount of green house gas emissions is decreasing slowly in those countries. On other side, developing countries are constructing more buildings and are enhancing its industrial area[34]. Hence, the amount of green house gas emission is increasing in those parts of the world. However, there is a huge debate between developed and developing countries, where developed countries think that the developing one are getting more opportunities to create pollutions while at the same time, developing countries are facing difficulties regarding poverty eradication as it is going to be more important issue for protecting environment. In this context, another debate has also been occurred regarding the accurate definition of developed and developing countries, as some economies like China and India are increasing significantly and also generating huge pollutions.

Objectives

Coming to the developing nations, it can be seen that, these countries lack money and technologies too, in order to keep themselves aligned with the environmental laws. Researches has also argued that developed nations are trying to put away their share of responsibility for environmental balance and aiming to avail benefit from it at the expense of reduced growth of the developing nations[35]. It has also been argued by the several researchers that, developed countries are not serious about reducing the environmental loss due to the industrialisation rather wants to utilise it as the tool of entry barriers for the developing nations. Most of the government revenue of the developing nations goes towards the infrastructural development that makes it hard for them to develop eco friendly technologies[36]. Utilising this scarcity, it is argued that developed nation try to capture the market of the developing nations with their latest eco friendly technology and slows down their impetus to grow.

Conclusion:

With the rise in number of researches regarding the environmental issues, it has become evident that there is acute relationship between the economic development and environmental regulation. However, it has not yet been clear to which extent the association is and the magnitude of the economic impact by the environmental laws. This report has tried to analyse the various issues related with the environmental laws and economic development and found that there most of the developed nations has been gained through the implication of the environmental plans. The report has found that, considerable amount of influence of the developed countries on the international bodies for environmental laws provide undue advantage to exploit the economic growth and sustainability of the developing nations. Analysing the interventionist policy by the international institutes to check the environmental degradation, the report has found that with ever rising pressure from the world bodies and international treaties it has become evident for the developing nations to invest more in the eco friendly technologies at the cost of the economic growth. It has not only hampered the expected short-run growth rate of these countries, moreover has constrained the future growth too. The report has found various interventionist policies have aided the first world countries to attain biased advantage through reduced amount of environmental responsibilities.

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[1] Zhaohui Chong, Chenglin Qin and Xinyue Ye, 'Environmental Regulation, Economic Network And Sustainable Growth Of Urban Agglomerations In China' (2016) 8 Sustainability.

[2] Gonzalez CG. Bridging the North-South Divide: International Environmental Law in the Anthropocene. Pace Envtl. L. Rev.. 2015;32:407.

[3] Wayne B Gray, Economic Costs And Consequences Of Environmental Regulation (Taylor and Francis 2018).

[4] David J. Long and Matthew Collins, 'Quantifying Global Climate Feedbacks, Responses And Forcing Under Abrupt And Gradual CO2 Forcing' (2013) 41 Climate Dynamics.

[5] Robert V Percival and others, Environmental Regulation.

[6] Power T, Economic Development And Environmental Protection (Taylor and Francis 2015)

[7] Ari I, Sari R. Developing CBDR-RC Indices for Fair Allocation of Emission Reduction Responsibilities and Capabilities across Countries. Cogent Environmental Science. 2017 Dec 23:1420365.

[8] Vetter SH, Sapkota TB, Hillier J, Stirling CM, Macdiarmid JI, Aleksandrowicz L, Green R, Joy EJ, Dangour AD, Smith P. Greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural food production to supply Indian diets: implications for climate change mitigation. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment. 2017 Jan 16;237:234-41.

[9] Dubash NK. Safeguarding development and limiting vulnerability: India's stakes in the Paris Agreement. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 2017 Mar 1;8(2).

[10] Ludwig T. The Key to Engaging with the SDGs: Utilizing Rio Principle 10 to Succeessfully Implement the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Sustainable Development Law & Policy. 2017;16(2):7.

[11] Nilsson M, Griggs D, Visbeck M, Ringler C, McCollum D. A framework for understanding Sustainable Development Goal Interactions. A Guide to SDG Interactions: From Science to Implementation. 2017.

[12] Bahareh A, Seyed AP, Roshandel R, Zare A. International convention to decrease conflict between energy supply and environmental protection. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology. 2018 Mar 1;8(1):608-18.

[13] Houser D, Libecap GD. Public Choice Issues in International Collective Action: Global Warming Regulation. InExplorations in Public Sector Economics 2017 (pp. 13-34). Springer, Cham.

[14] Young OR, Onoda M. Satellite Earth Observations in Environmental Problem-Solving. InSatellite Earth Observations and Their Impact on Society and Policy 2017 (pp. 3-27). Springer, Singapore.

[15] Chipperfield MP, Dhomse SS, Feng W, McKenzie RL, Velders GJ, Pyle JA. Quantifying the ozone and ultraviolet benefits already achieved by the Montreal Protocol. Nature communications. 2015 May 26;6:7233.

[16] Hegglin MI, Fahey DW, McFarland M, Montzka SA, Nash ER. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2014-Twenty Questions and Answers About the Ozone Layer: 2014 Update.

[17] Bodansky D. The Paris climate change agreement: a new hope?. American Journal of International Law. 2016 Apr;110(2):288-319.

[18] Rogelj J, Den Elzen M, Höhne N, Fransen T, Fekete H, Winkler H, Schaeffer R, Sha F, Riahi K, Meinshausen M. Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2 C. Nature. 2016 Jun;534(7609):631.

[19] Dimitrov RS. The Paris agreement on climate change: Behind closed doors. Global Environmental Politics. 2016 Aug;16(3):1-1.

[20] Bowman M. 5 International North Pacific Fisheries Convention (9 May 1952, 205 UNTS 79). 6 Sands & Peel (n 1 above) 26. 7 LB Sohn ‘The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment’(1973) 14 Harvard International Law Review 423; P Birnie et al International law and the environment (3rd edn 2009) 48. The implementation of international law in Germany and South Africa. 2015:240.

[21] Hashim KS, Mohamed AH, Redza HZ. Developing a waste minimization awareness model through community based movement: A case study of the IIUM Green Team. Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space. 2017 Sep 18;8(5).

[22] Leary DK. International Environmental Law, Sustainable Generation of Energy from the Ocean and Small Island Developing States in the Pacific. Sustainable Ocean Resource Governance: Deep Sea Mining, Marine Energy and Submarine Cables. 2018 Feb 5:84.

[23] Spinozzi P, Mazzanti M. I. 2 The incongruities of sustainability: an examination of the UN Earth Summit Declarations 1972–2012. InCultures of Sustainability and Wellbeing 2017 Nov 14 (pp. 66-82). Routledge.

[24] Cáceres L. Climate Change Relevant Aspects at World and National Levels. Revista AFESE. 2017 Jan 16;46(46).

[25] Wood BT, Stringer LC, Dougill AJ, Quinn CH. Socially Just Triple-Wins? A Framework for Evaluating the Social Justice Implications of Climate Compatible Development. Sustainability. 2018 Jan 16;10(1):211.

[26] Marks SP. Integrating a Human Rights-Based Approach to Development and the Right to Development into Global Governance for Health. Human Rights in Global Health: Rights-Based Governance for a Globalizing World. 2018:331.

[27] Adam Vaughan, 'Carbon Emissions Per Person, By Country' (the Guardian, 2018) <https://www.theguardian.com/environment/datablog/2009/sep/02/carbon-emissions-per-person-capita> accessed 26 March 2018.

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