The Telephone's Adoption Essay Transformed Society.

You are required to write a fully referenced essay on a topic of your choosing that is related to the themes of Ethics for a Digital Society namely the social, ethical, cultural and/or historical aspects of information technology and allied areas of professional practice.

Telephones and privacy

The 1876 invention by Alexander Graham Bell of the telephone has been one of the mankind’s greatest revelation, whose significance could not have been ascertained at the time of its inception. In a nutshell, it has revolutionized society. The basic idea behind the invention of the telephone was to allow for easy communication over long distance thus reforming society, according to one of the four major ideas put across by Plato for a more fulfilled life. However, it has changed the world in its entirety. The changes have been economical, educational, social, mental, spiritual and physical. The magnitude of the capability telephones to change the world can be seen in the number of people who own such handset devices. According to Bengtsson, Thorson, Garfield &Von Schreeb, (2011), more people have access to telephones than toilets. Further, according to the World Bank, there are more people with cell phones than bank accounts. There are a couple of ways that could be used to describe how the widespread adoption of the telephone has changed the world. A particular way that forms the basis of this discussion is with regard to ethical concepts and theories. These were developed by different philosophers at different times, and their sole purpose was to give perspective to different scenarios from an ethical point of view.

In principle, telephones have redefined the boundaries of privacy when it comes to communication using the devices. The power to determine what is and what not accessible has since is moved out of the hands of the users. As such, talks of privacy in relation to telephones have been around for a while now and do not seem to be going away anytime soon. A recent altercation in relation to the above mentioned involved the so-called communications metadata whereby the surveillance law and policy in many countries allowed for its collection even on its citizens under the premise that there was no interconnection in metadata, it could not be re-identified and could not offer any assistance in drawing sensitive inferences(Mayer, Mutchler& Mitchell, 2016). However, as demonstrated in a study by Mayer, Mutchler& Mitchell (2016), all the above mentioned were very much possible. As a result, they can be used to infringe on the privacy of individuals.

Apart from the above, it is a known fact that the locations of individuals can be ascertained using tracking capabilities without the knowledge of the particular persons. This has led to the formation of civil societies that work against unlawful or unjustified disclosures of citizen’s telephone data. These groups advocate for compliance with the relevant law provisions that stipulate the necessary requirements for tracking or acquisition of information from the service providers. Further, the societies have been litigants in the challenge of the constitutionality of programs that invade privacy and encourage tech companies to employ technologies that protect the privacy of the users.

Telephones and the utilitarianism theory

The above can be analyzed using the basic ideas put forward by the utilitarianism theory. The theory was put forward by the duo of English Philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. According to the theory, “Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Wasserman, 2014).” The above-cited influences on the happiness of individuals in a negative manner thus making the actions of the institutions that engage in privacy breaches in the name of surveillance wrong. It is clear that the basic rule of the theory is against such actions as governments tracking the locations of its citizens.

However, despite being such acts as tracking and drawing sensitive inferences from metadata, the theory is in favor of the rules that favor regulation such actions and the presence of groups such as the civil societies that keep the Governments in check. The rules and lobby groups lead to greater happiness hence outweighing the unhappiness. Consequently, the prevalence of happiness fosters an environment where the masses feel safe and are rest assured of the safety of their privacy. Basing our decision on the theory, acts such as collection of metadata, drawing of sensitive inferences using meta data and tracking of individuals is considered unethical. On the other hand, efforts put in place to combat the above, such as litigation, and urging tech companies to put in place measures to ensure privacy is guarded are considered ethical i.e.,.they are permissible in that they result in the greatest good for the greatest number.

Still, there’s some aspect of relativism in the whole idea of the telephone and privacy. Technology as a whole has left the world in general susceptible to varied forms of potential attacks. For this reason, the Government might say the whole idea behind intrusion of the privacy of its citizens is right for it is for the sake of national security, while the individuals and lobby groups might express it is an intrusion and violates him right to privacy. In this instance, according to the relativity theory, both parties are deemed right.

Even more, the question of privacy in the use of mobile phones brings about the ideas outlined in the social contract theory. According to the theory: “morality consists of in the set of rules governing behavior, that rational people would accept, on the condition that other people accept them as well (Broad, 2014).” In considering the rights of the consumers affiliated to a certain service provider, they expect that their telephone data will be kept confidential. A few questions arise though  if the telephone company has already provided a service paid for by the customer, who owns the telephone data?If the Government is accorded a right to information, is seeking telephone data from the service provider without the knowledge of the consumer wrong?The social contract theory settles this by establishing that all parties are bound by an agreement in this case keeping confidential information confidential, especially under the positive right ‘agreement’ where individuals (corporations included) are obligated to do something on other’s behalf.

Relativism in the privacy debate

Telephones have changed the definition of what is regarded a healthy relationship in the society.Findings from a study by Hall, Baym&Miltner, (2014) ascertained that there was a significant impact of mobile phones on relational quality. There are various ways that mobile phones have been known to impact life positively. One, mobile phones have changed the way individuals go about the functionality of their lives in the social scene. The mobile phones have been a more than welcome means to transcend family boundaries in a bid to generate more networks.  The level of organization seen today in the social life of young people has been majorly attributed to the telephone. The constraints of distance have been duly eliminated by telephones. Further, telephones have enhanced spontaneity in the lives of individuals due to the fact that organizing and reorganizing functions allowing for more fluidity in information social interaction.

Two, mobiles phones have facilitated for more connectivity. Thus, the relational use is intertwined with the above mentioned. It has served to link the masses more closely to one another. This has led to certain rules of engagement.  For instance, texting has a time frame within which a reply is expected. After the elapse of the window, a reply should be accompanied by an apology.Regardless, there are some negative aspects attributed to telephones from a relationship point of view. First, people hide behind technology from events that are distressing events such as broken relationships and cyberbullying. Second, choosing to text rather than talk about difficult situations negatively impacts the ability of individuals to interact with each other.(relationship ethic- relational-cultural theory. Third, those who do not have access to telephone and mobile phones for that matter run the risk of being secluded. Reports of a 2004 Australian study indicated that nearly 50% of adolescents not in possession of mobile phones expressed that they felt being left out of social interactions for not owning a phone and approximate 35% felt pressurized to getting one.

The negativity surrounding telephone ownership is a demonstration of some of the limitations of the social contract theory.To start with,no one has signed a contract yet the rules of engagement are applicable to all (Weale, 2017). Not owning a phone is seen as a contravention of the agreement that an individual should own a phone for inclusion in a certain circle of interaction. Moreover, certain individuals are unjustly treated for failure to uphold a contract. This case is demonstrated by the findings outlined regarding the study that was conducted on adolescents in Australia. Still, there are some aspects of the social contract theory that are the evident type of change that telephones have brought to the society. The rights based feature of this theory under limited right states that a right may be restricted based on the circumstances (Broad, 2014). The right to interaction is one such right that has been restricted to the individuals that lack mobile phones.

Telephones and the social contract theory

Another of the major influences of the telephone in changing the society has been on the individual character of the individuals’ level. The telephone has since ceased to be an electronic device but a social tool. Individual character encompasses a wide range of factors. Among adolescents, for instance, the manner in which they have adopted mobile phones is regarded a global phenomenon.In a video presented by a popular British philosopher Alain de Botton titledPhilosophy: A Guide to Happiness that featured Socrates ideas on self-confidence.He states one of Socrates’ influential ideas that explains that we should find ways to try and build confidence in our own beliefs but not being too swayed by the opinion of others. This reiterates Plato’s and Aristotle’s virtue ethics under the character-based ethical theory. The theory recommends that we s on the criteria of character development in an attempt to acquire good character traits from habit. Aristotle put forward the ways through which we learn. It is interesting how the telephone has adhered to this method in changing the society after its widespread. First, it's by imitation where people constantly  imitate others with the telephone serving as the medium.This is followed by internalizing the most appropriate course of action and lastly, practicing to develop the character or virtue into a habit.

The basic questions that the character-based theory poses to individuals are “what kind of person should I be?” Telephones, in changing the society have completely influenced the development of individual character to an extent that instead of abiding by Socrates’ idea that thinking more logically about our lives, might help us be more certain about character, free from what other people may think, more and more people are reliant on what others think in the process of developing character, Botton, (2012) explains. The influence that telephone has had on society is comparable to sheep. Botton outlines that human beings have the urge to follow others passively, a character that is common with the use of telephones. Further, it is a common occurrence to see other people following particularly other ‘important’ people under the premise that they know what they are doing (Botton, 2012). This is not to say that in the formative years this was not a common occurrence. On the contrary, this is something that has been around for ages, but it is just more pronounced now with the advancement of phones.

A character can be analyzed in terms of non-consequential ethics where a higher authority determines morality as stated by the divine theory, some sense of duty as explained in the duty theory, intuition among others. The inbuilt sense of right or wrong is slowly being tampered by some of the effects outlined above that are brought about by different aspects of telephones such as social media that influences people’s character.The principle makes the assumption that there is sovereignty in each person’s decision-making and the decision to express certain values is derived from a position of self-interest. The first assumption is not observed as the features that accompany telephone in this age and time are influential on the sovereignty of decision-making.

Telephone and healthy relationship

People disguising as different individuals is a common spectacle in the world of telephones. Honesty in the world of telephones has since ceased to be a virtue, and the line that determines whether dishonesty over this medium of communication is ethical or not is slowly fading. Studies across difference ranges of communication have shown that people are two times more likely to lie over the phone than over any other means of communication. However, whether it becomes and more acceptable in the social scene, the duty-based theory under the deontology begs to differ with this notion by setting the record straight. There are certain imperatives to this theory that forms the basis of all analysis. First: “Act on a rule that can be universally binding on all individuals, second: “act on the rule that ensures all people will be treated as ends in themselves.”

In scenario one when applying it to dishonesty on telephones, the formulated rule would be ‘you may lie on the phone as long as it is justified.' The universal nature of the rule implies that there is no credibility in telephone calls. Ultimately, the proposal moral rule is self-defeating as it is wrong to come across as dishonest in a phone call. In the second scenario where action on the rule ensures that all people are treated as ends in themselves a person lying on the phone in an attempt to deceive the other party establishes the end as getting away with a lie, and the means is the other party not detecting the lie. Consequently, the theory determines that the act of being dishonest on the phone is unethical despite the general tolerance to the habit.

Analysis of the above case can also be done using the social contract theory. The unwritten social contract stipulates how different parties interact. The following rights applicable to telephones and honesty are listed under the theory: natural rights that exhibit independence of legal rights, negative rights, positive rights, absolute right and limited rights. Under absolute rights, it is expected that rights will be provided without exception.  This is violated with the above case since it is expected that conversations over the phone are carried out with all honesty. Also, the theory of the limited right explains that a right might be restricted depending on the circumstances. These circumstances imply factors that are agreeable to both parties and do not come across as beneficial to one party while the others taken advantage of.

Honesty and the use of telephones in the society can be argued from a utilitarian point of view in that the decision to lie is purely consequential hence bringing about the idea of consequential ethics. According to the principal, the essence of what is and what is not moral is based on the on the outcome of the act rather than the act itself. In other words, there is legitimacy in upholding dishonesty to get out of a serious problem.

In conclusion, there are various ways in which the widespread adoption of the telephone has changed the society. Telephones have redefined the roles and virtues contained in an individual’s character. Moreover, there seems to be an element of laxity with regard to upholding honesty in telephone conversations. Further, telephones have been influential in the determination of individual character in that those that are regarded as their virtues are influenced partly by various aspects of telephones. Again, telephones have had a hand in what is regarded as healthy relationships and unhealthy relationships from an interactive point of view. The ethical considerations of these changes are adequately analyzed by the different theories and concepts of ethics developed by different philosophers. The theories relate the various case examples with the ideas that they advocate to establish the ethical standing of the scenarios presented in the cases.

References

Mayer, J., Mutchler, P. and Mitchell, J.C., 2016. Evaluating the privacy properties of telephone metadata. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, p.201508081.

Hall, J.A., Baym, N.K. and Miltner, K.M., 2014. Put down that phone and talk to me: Understanding the roles of mobile phone norm adherence and similarity in relationships. Mobile Media & Communication, 2(2), pp.134-153.

Frederiksen, C.S., 2015. Ethical Egoism; Ethical Theories; Utilitarianism. Dictionary of Corporate Social Responsibility.

Lacey, J. and Lamont, J., 2014. Using social contract to inform social licence to operate: an application in the Australian coal seam gas industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 84, pp.831-839.

Botton, A. (2012). Socrates on Self Confidence- Phylosophy: A Guide to Hapiness. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S24FxdvfOko [Accessed 4 Jun. 2017].

Weale, A., 2017. Democratic justice and the social contract: an overview. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 20(2), pp.207-210.

Bengtsson, L., Lu, X., Thorson, A., Garfield, R. and Von Schreeb, J., 2011. Improved response to disasters and outbreaks by tracking population movements with mobile phone network data: a post-earthquake geospatial study in Haiti. PLoS Med, 8(8), p.e1001083.

Wasserman, H., 2014. Media Ethics Theories in Africa. The Handbook of Media and Mass Communication Theory, pp.781-797.

Broad, C.D., 2014. Five types of ethical theory (Vol. 2). Routledge.