Principles Of War Of Inchon: Analysis, Outcomes, And Key Findings

Discus about the principles of War of Inchon.

This report will develop a broad understanding of the principles of War of Inchon, also known as operation Chromite that was an amphibious invasion and battle of the South Korea forces and the United Nations armies against the North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) . This operation of the Korean War began on 15 September 1950 and continued till the end on 19 September 1950. This report will describe the principles of war of the battle of Inchon or Chromite Operation, including the selection and maintenance of aim, offensive action, concentration, surprise, flexibility and cooperation. This report will outline the key principles of the battle of Inchon that caused for the failure or success.

This report will describe the application of the principles of war that influenced the overall outcome with in-depth analysis and findings supporting the study. Along with this, the outcomes will be identified that remain relevant in the current operating environment by using the comprehensive arguments and evidences. This report will also explain the positive and negative elements of the campaign from all perspectives. This will also discuss the in-depth analysis of the campaign and principles of war of battle of Inchon through this case study. The report will also discuss and use the common keywords of Principles of War of the battle of Inchon used in this case study.

Aim- The purpose of preparing this report is to identify and analyze the principles of war, the key findings, possible outcomes, and in-depth analysis of Inchon Battle or Chromite operation. This report is aimed at reviewing the key facts and findings and outcomes of the case study of Inchon battle that was a result of the amphibious landing by the United Nations against the NKPA at Inchon, Korea. This report is intended to examine the elements of design for the planning of the Inchon Battle/Chromite operation. This report will examine and explain the planning consideration, plan developments and options, fundamental principles and concepts for the battle of Inchon during the overall study.  

Scope- The scope of this study is wide that covers a range of topics, concepts, and ideas related to the case study of battle of Inchon /Chromite operation. This report will discuss and analyze the multiple disciplines of the Chromite operation including principles of war of Inchon Battle, in-depth analysis, purpose and relevant findings, outcomes, positive and negative aspects of this combat campaign, comprehensive arguments and evidences by using the chronology, keywords, and descriptive case study of Inchon Battle.      

Scope of the Study

Review of the battle of Inchon or Chromite Operation by analyzing the principles of war, relevant findings and in-depth analysis and outcomes

The battle of Inchon or Chromite Operation was an amphibious invasion or assault that was continued for the period from 15 September to 19 September. This war resulted into the decisive victory and strategic reversal of the United Nations by the U.S. X Corps troops by attacking/invading on the North Korean’s People Army (SKPA). The Chromite operation or Inchon Battle was conducted as a surprise amphibious assault on the North Korean armies by the combined military operations of the U.S. and South Korea at the Western Cast of Korea, Inchon. This invasion was relatively far from the Pusan Perimeter that the U.S. Armies and South Korean were desperately defending, the undefended city of the South Korean country, Incheon that were secured after being amphibious landed and bombed by the United nation forces. The Inchon battle or Chromite operation involved 75000 U.S. troops and 261 naval vessels.

This battle resulted into the decisive defeat and collapse of the North Korean government due to the brilliant generalship and commandment supervision of Douglas MacArthur who jointly charged the whole military operation of the battle by commanding both the United Nations and the South Korean forces to amphibious invade on the NKPA. This battle was an assault for the recapture of Seoul area of South Korea from North Korea with the help of chief commander and general of the United Nation armies, MacArthur who undertook this responsibility for developing effective military operational strategy and preplanning for crafting a response to the North Korean invasion. His mind was well set for finding a decisive solution for gaining victory in this battle by throwing the forces as quickly as possible to stop and defeat the North Korean’s People Army.

This battle was based on the key or fundamental principles that determined the success of the battle. These key principles for the battle of Inchon include Concentration, Unity of Command, Surprise (unlikely/unsuitable landing site), Flexibility, Objective (Landing at Inchon facilitated the recapturing of Seoul) Innovation and Creativity, Mass, Maneuver (amphibious turning movement/invasion assault), operational intelligence, offensive action (reverse the Pusan Situation and gain the initiative), Simplicity, Security, Mass, and Economy of Force. All these fundamental principles contributed to the success of the victory of the United Nations by defeating the North Korean armies in the Inchon battle. Synergy, Anticipation, Balance, Leverage, Timing, Tempo, depth analysis, simultaneous, operational reach, decisive points, centers of gravity, culmination, termination, and arranging operations are important facets of the Chromite operation

Review of the Battle of Inchon: Analysis of Principles of War, Findings and Outcomes

The United Nations planning, strategic plans, warfare operational policies, military preparation, and execution of the CHROMITE operation provided a framework for this future joint military operation of Inchon Battle. During the initial stages, the forces were not adequately trained, equipped, and structured for the combat operation and were deployed the first attempt to delay the NKPA and were defeated because of offensive momentum of the North Korean Army. But, the brilliant commandership and genius leadership of MacArthur, long-day training and commandant supervision of the CINCFE forces, operational plans and strategic development, military task force operations, best employment of troops and synchronization of the operations are such as key tactics and core areas of success of the United Nations in this battle. The CINCFE forces were well trained in the commandership of MacArthur for being them capable of responding quickly to NKPA’s challenge. MacArthur joined the South Korean and the U.S. forces and formed CINCFE to take amphibious landing or invasion on the North Korea at Inchon. The joint military operations provided flexibility and versatility to the commander during the combat operations.

The NPKA’s were 127,000-135,000 in numbers and were organized into eight infantry divisions at full strengths, two armored divisions at half of their strengths equipped with T-34 tanks, a separate armored regiment, a separate infantry regiment, and a motorcycle reconnaissance regiment. North Korea put their best of the resources with the large numbers of the NKPAs but the air force and navy forces were fewer with 180-210 Soviet Built aircrafts of all types. In the initial stages of Inchon-Seoul Campaign, the United Nations armies were defeated because of the lack of preplanning, inadequacy of the preparation and strategic developments.

After gaining defeat from the NKPA, the FECOM staff conducted and executed the thorough planning and preparation required to perform a joint military operation as the CINCFE forces were synchronized throughout the entire combat operation of this battle to exploit the success of the initial attack forces. The mission analysis and visionary approach were conducted to obtain the best employment of the troops and synchronization of the operations for preventing the loss of lives and equipment/weapons. This operation was based on the principle of surprise to respond to the North Korean offensive Momentum through an amphibious landing on the unsuitable place of Inchon. MacArthur surprised the enemies with the power projection capability of combat power through water, land, and sea for defeating the offensive North Korean forces. The air strikes were combined with the naval gun fires for weakening the enemy strong areas and artillery of the NKPA as well as threatening the Far East Forces in the joint areas of operations at Inchon. During the Chromite Operation, the United Nations Navy, CINCFE used the cruisers, air guns, fire guns, destroyers and battleship with 16 inches guns.

Key Principles of the Battle

During this joint combat amphibious operation, the combination of the weapon system were used to provide the operational fires and naval gun fires to meet the operational needs of the battleship of the commander for this joint operations. The operational intelligence during the CHROMITE Operation enabled JTF-7 commander to enhance the capability of the United Nations Forces to invade adequately against the North Korean Army in the joint combat operations of Incheon and Seoul. The accurate information about the enemies (North Korean Army), strategic and operational centers of gravity, and direction of the friendly operations against the enemy strengths and vulnerabilities provided a clear command structure giving liberty to CINCFE forces for the action of invasion throughout the entire joint combat operation. The Operation Chromite or Inchon battle was conducted at multiple stages that involved the higher level of risks accepted by the CINCFE and JTF-7 commanders in order to attack the enemy’s critical weaknesses or COG.

The army force structure of the U.S. was based on the pre-eminence of the infantry divisions with an integrated armor support. Each infantry division had three regiments, three battalions, and four infantry companies per battalion. This structure of X corps in the commandment of the General MacArthur and Major General Almond was designed to conduct the amphibious assault at Inchon. The X Corps consisted of the one regiment and 1^st Marine division withdrawn from the Pusan Perimeter for giving that division the full wartime strengths of 7^th infantry division and three regiments. The X corps troops were the assault forces with the joint support and overall control of the coordinated task forces of JTF-7. The JTF-7 was combined operational command incorporating the marine, army, and navy units together for supporting the amphibious assault operation. The JTF-7 would strike the enemies, North Koreans at weak and unprepared point through the mass and effective surprise before the NKPA could react.

This operation was succeeded due to several reasons, such as maintaining the air supremacy, striking the aircrafts to hit the North Koreans during the daylight hours in the combined or joint combat operation at the Inchon-Seoul area. Along with the smooth and consistent supplies of the manpower and weapons, control of the skies, presence of a secure logistical base, naval gunfire support, combination of the U.S. naval and air supremacy were some strong areas that determined the success of the operation Chromite for recapturing of Seoul by South Korea with the help of the United Nations Army. Chief Commander, MacArthur’s amphibious assault and hammer and anvil techniques ensured the defeat of the North Korean Army with virtual collapse of the NKPA.

Planning and Execution of the Battle

Mac Arthur Saw the CHROMITE operation as an initial away against the North Koreans that would replace the allied forces on the offensive momentum of the North Korean armies and gaining the decisive momentum for achieving victory in this combat operation. The objectivity of MacArthur for choosing Inchon as a landing site for the amphibious assault on the NKPA’s due to its proximity to Seoul, the capital of South Korea, Inchon located at the Western coast of the Korean peninsula. This operation was based on objectivity of MacArthur who saw this operation as a way of recapturing of Seoul by South Korea with the help of the X Corps troops and JTF-7 forces of the United Nations.  The battle of Inchon or Chromite Operation was placed to land the large force of CINCFE behind the North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) for recapture of the South Korean’s capital Seoul. The Chromite operation was turning point of Korean War that was conducted in the commandant ship of General Mac Arthur taking right and accurate decisions that changed/altered the political nature of the war and the United Nations’ foreign policy.

The CHROMITE operation or Inchon battle was designed to be a single envelopment that showed the simplicity of the operation. The X Corps troops made an amphibious assault with the help of JTF-7 forces that integrated the marine/navy forces, air forces, and military armies together to attack on the NKPAs that were large in the numbers. The Eighth army of the X Crops broke out of the Pusan Perimeter to prevent the NKPA from reinforcing their rear areas, driving north, pushing the NKPA cut-off logically at back North, and linking the landing the armies at the landing sites of Inchon-Seoul area. The CHROMITE operation was successful because of Mac Arthur Choosing Inchon for the Amphibious landing for invading on the NKPAs that North Korea never expected because there are only mud flats and no beaches, as well as tidal problem with the tidal variance at 32 feet at high tide and 5 feet at low tide at Inchon.

The X Corps troops encountered the friendly casualties and spotty resistance from the enemies at the unfavorable landing environment of Inchon. Within the twenty-four hours of first main landings, 1^st Marine division of X Corps troops secured the high ground of six miles of East Inchon. The unity of command was another reason for the success of the CHROMITE operation that was conducted under the genius commandant ship and brilliant leadership of Douglas Mac Arthur who organized X Corps Troops including the JTF-7 that were comprised the forces of the military armies, navy/marine forces, and air forces as well as similar combined weapon/equipment (air strikes, fire guns, and bombs) for ensuring the success of this campaign. 

Factors Contributing to the Success or Failure of the Campaign

The United Nations and South Korean Armies (CINCFE) took advantage of the interior lines at Pusan Perimeter but free from exploiting the exterior lines because of the lack of the naval forces of the North Korea. The Chromite operation was conducted to be a flank attack for attacking in the deep in the enemy’s rear areas for diverting the NKPAs, disrupting its LOCs and pushing to cut-off the main force of avenue of retreat during this joint combat operation. MacArthur ordered one marine regiment out of the Pusan Perimeter to withdraw the NKPA from the North Area to counter back that ensured the success of the operation by taking the extra risks or pressure of the Eights army. The invasion assault force, X Corps was consisted of 70,000 troops and 261 naval vessels showed the operational intelligence and capability for estimating the NKPA’s strengths better in the Inchon-Seoul area as 1500-2000 soldiers were garrisoned in the landing area of Inchon. The U.S. Eighth army of the X Corps troops out of the Pusan Perimeter occupied the attention of the NKPAs in the South and kept them busy in the north area of the Inchon-Seoul area.

This Inchon-Seoul Campaign or CHROMITE operation showed the unanimous objections- an amphibious invasion in the Inchon-Seoul area by continuing supply of the X Corps troops and weapons including the Eighth army out of the Pusan Perimeter for gaining the complete control of the Inchon operation, recapturing Seoul within few days, and cutting-off the supply lines of North Korea. The American and South Korean forces broke out the Pusan Perimeter and chased to retreat the enemies from the North side of Inchon. MacArthur showed his intensive focus by advocating the plan to led troops behind the enemies at Inchon and attacking the NPKAs from both North and South side of Inchon-Seoul area. MacArthur faced challenged from other American Military leaders, such as extreme tides, narrow port channel, and unfavorable climate. The CINCFE knew that the NKPAs were vulnerable in the rear areas because most of the war-fighting forces of the NKPAs were concentrated or engaged themselves around the Pusan Perimeter.

The general exploited the opportunity to attack the critical illness of the enemies, NKPAs, broking the Pusan Perimeter, and the lines of the communication. MacArthur believed that the amphibious landing operation was only the way to defeat and repel the North Korean’s People Army from South Korea by stopping the Southward drive of the NKPA. The CHROMITE operation consisted of landing at Inchon in the rear of NKPAs to disrupt the command of the North Koreans, cut lines of communications, and seize Seoul. While, the NKPAs were engaged around Pusan, The UN commander general MacArthur planned to take an amphibious assault or landing from both sides of at Peninsula’s West Coast of Inchon of South Korean Country. The United Nations Armies kept the NKPA in the position to cut the North Koreans’ supply lines. The most of the American military leaders and commanders were opposed to the Inchon Landing because of the high fluctuating tides, strong current, and narrow approach channel. The surprise planning of MacArthur of Inchon Landing changed the Korean War overnight and ensured the success of the Chromite operation that the enemies not expected for this type of amphibious landing at Inchon.  

Positive and Negative Aspects of the Campaign

The CHROMITE operation or battle of Inchon is a warfare framework that provides a learning lesson to other military leaders or commanders to learn from the genius leadership and effective supervision of Chief Commander, Douglas MacArthur to change the situation of the war overnight after gaining defeat in the initial stages of the Korean War. The battle of Inchon represents a role model of one of the most decisive military operations to other forthcoming operations to adopt such decisive approach with preplanning and preparation of the strategic warfare plans. This provides learning how to gain a victory by defeating enemies through an amphibious landing to attack from both sides on the enemies.

The Objectivity, Concentration, Surprise, Unity of Command, Flexibility, Mass, Maneuver, offensive, operational intelligence, Economy of Force, Simplicity, and Security are such key principles of the command leadership of MacArthur for the Chromite operation that provide a platform to other military war operations to manage successful triumph operation. This successful operation teaches us how to develop strategic plans and effective warfare policies to defeat the enemies by landing on the places, such as Inchon where the enemies never expected to attack because of unpleased/unfavorable climate, high flow tides, narrow channel, and strong current there that surprised the enemies (NKPAs) and caused for their defeat in the Korean War.

This successful operation was an example of the decisive Victory and Strategic reversal of the U.S. and South Koreans under the brilliant commandership of MacArthur who united the military armies, navy/marine forces and air forces as well as air strikes with fire gun weapons that assisted to gain the victory by the South Koreans after gaining defeats in the initial stages of the Korean War as well as recapturing of Seoul by South Korea through the successful Chromite operation. This successful case study or historic event will present a learning lesson to other commanders or military leaders to adopt such types of plans strategies, and policies in the operations for defeating the enemies. This was a great example of the modern warfare environment that remained unambiguously successful only due to large scale U.S. Combat or joint military operation of MacArthur.

Conclusion

From the above studies, it can be concluded that the battle of Inchon or Operation Chromite was an amphibious landing or invasion by the United Nations’ X Crops on the NPKA at Inchon area of Korea’s West Coast. The United Nations planning, military preparation, strategic plans, and execution of the operation CHROMITE presented a framework for the future joint military operations. The United Nations and South Korean forces were commanded by the General of the US Army, Douglas Mac Arthur who was main driving force behind the Chromite operation. The Chromite operation or battle of Inchon was based on the principles, such as surprise, flexibility, offensive action, cooperation, concentration, mass, maneuver, economy of force, unity of command, simplicity, and security. This report described the outcomes and in-depth analysis of the battle of Inchon or Operation Chromite. The most of the military scholars consider the battle of Inchon one of the most decisive military operations in the modern warfare environment, the large scale U.S. Combat operation that remained unambiguously successful.

In-Depth Analysis of the Campaign

This operation showed the brilliant success of the U.S. Army in the brilliant generalship and military genius of the general of the U.S. Army, Douglas MacArthur. The successive plans, mission operations, genius commandership, United Nations X Corps invasion, wide troops and naval vessels, and weapon and instruments supplies were some major reasons that highlighted the success of the operation chromite. This battle or combat operation could become more successful by developing more preplanning of the military operations, training and supervision, successive missionary operations and plans, troops and weapon supply planning, and different warfare policies that could support this operation more effectively and efficiently. This war could be ended in short span of period with high success if this could be carried-out in controlled supervision and strong leadership with highly conducive warfare environment.

References

Alexander, H. J. C. (2015). USMC Battle of the Barricades: U.S. Marines in the Recapture of Seoul [Illustrated Edition]. Australia: Pickle Partners Publishing.

Almond and Edward, M.  (2011). Conference on United Nations Military Operations in Korea. Pennsylvania: The Army War College, Carlisle Barracks.

Appleman and Roy (2009). US Army in the Korean War, South to the Naktona, North to the Yalu.  Washington: The Office of the Chief of Military History.

Bradley, Omar, N. and Blair, C. (2005). A General's Life.  New York: Simon and Schuster.

Brigadier General Simmons, H. E. (2015). Over The Seawall: U.S. Marines At Inchon [Illustrated Edition]. Australia: Pickle Partners Publishing.

Canzona, Nicholas, and Montross, L. (2007). US Marine Operations in Korea 1950-1943.  Washington: US Marin Corps Historical Branch.

Chapter Six (2006). The visionary: MacArthur at Inchon. [Online]. Available at:  https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/MR775/MR775.chap6.pdf. (Accessed: 16 June 2017).

CSI Battle book 2-D (1986). Operation Chromite (Inchon). [Online]. Available at: https://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a165924.pdf. (Accessed: 16 June 2017).

Ecker, E. R. (2010). Korean Battle Chronology: Unit-by-Unit United States Casualty Figures and Medal of Honor Citations. Washington: Mc Farland.

Edwards, M. P. (2008). The Inchon Landing, Korea, 1950: an annotated bibliography. U.S.: Greenwood Press.

Field and James A, (2002). The US Naval Operations, Korea. Washington: Oxford University Press.

Higgins and Trumbull (2010). Korea and the Fall of MacArthur. New York: Oxford University Press.

Langley, M. (2009). Inchon Landing: MacArthur's Last Triumph. South Korea: Times Books.

Leary, M. W. (2001). MacArthur and the American Century: A Reader. The United Nations: The University of Nebraska Press.

LLC Books (2010). Conflicts in 1950: Battle of Chosin Reservoir, Battle of Route Coloniale 4, Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, Battle of Inchon. Australia: General Books.

Common Keywords Used in this Study

Mac Carald, C. (2017). The Battle of Inchon: Turning Point of the Korean War. Australia: North Star Editions.

Sloan, B. (2009). The Darkest Summer: Pusan and Inchon 1950: The Battles That Saved South Korea--and the Marines--from Extinction. Washington: Simon& Schuster.

Tactical Operation Center (2011). Campaign Analysis: Operation CHROMITE. [Online]. Available at: https://www.tacticaloperationscenter.com/Inchon.htm. (Accessed: 16 June 2017).

Thought Co. (2015). Korean War: Inchon Landings. [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/korean-war-inchon-landings-2360845. (Accessed: 16 June 2017)

Almond and Edward, M.  (2011). Conference on United Nations Military Operations in Korea. Pennsylvania: The Army War College, Carlisle Barracks.

Appleman and Roy (2009). US Army in the Korean War, South to the Naktona, North to the Yalu.  Washington: The Office of the Chief of Military History.

Alexander, H. J. C. (2015). USMC Battle of the Barricades: U.S. Marines in the Recapture of Seoul [Illustrated Edition]. Australia: Pickle Partners Publishing

Canzona, Nicholas, and Montross, L. (2007). US Marine Operations in Korea 1950-1943.  Washington: US Marin Corps Historical Branch

Chapter Six (2006). The visionary: MacArthur at Inchon. [Online]. Available at:  https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/MR775/MR775.chap6.pdf

CSI Battle book 2-D (1986). Operation Chromite (Inchon). [Online]. Available at: https://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a165924.pdf

Ecker, E. R. (2010). Korean Battle Chronology: Unit-by-Unit United States Casualty Figures and Medal of Honor Citations. Washington: Mc Farland.

Edwards, M. P. (2008). The Inchon Landing, Korea, 1950: an annotated bibliography. U.S.: Greenwood Press.

Field and James A, (2002). The US Naval Operations, Korea. Washington: Oxford University Press.

CSI Battle book 2-D (1986). Operation Chromite (Inchon). [Online]. Available at: https://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a165924.pdf.

Leary, M. W. (2001). MacArthur and the American Century: A Reader. The United Nations: The University of Nebraska Press.

Higgins and Trumbull (2010). Korea and the Fall of MacArthur. New York: Oxford University Press.

LLC Books (2010). Conflicts in 1950: Battle of Chosin Reservoir, Battle of Route Coloniale 4, Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, Battle of Inchon. Australia: General Books.

Mac Carald, C. (2017). The Battle of Inchon: Turning Point of the Korean War. Australia: North Star Editions.

Langley, M. (2009). Inchon Landing: MacArthur's Last Triumph. South Korea: Times Books.

Sloan, B. (2009). The Darkest Summer: Pusan and Inchon 1950: The Battles That Saved South Korea--and the Marines--from Extinction. Washington: Simon& Schuster.

Thought Co. (2015). Korean War: Inchon Landings. [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/korean-war-inchon-landings-2360845.

Tactical Operation Center (2011). Campaign Analysis: Operation CHROMITE. [Online]. Available at: https://www.tacticaloperationscenter.com/Inchon.htm.

Mac Carald, C. (2017). The Battle of Inchon: Turning Point of the Korean War. Australia: North Star Editions.

Bradley, Omar, N. and Blair, C. (2005). A General's Life.  New York: Simon and Schuster