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Roles of different structures within male and female reproductive system

Explain the roles of the different structures within male and female reproductive system

In males, a sac-like structure is present outside the body which is known as scrotal sac, in this lies the testes. Testes are lined by coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules which produce sperms. Specialised cells are present adjacently, within the tubules called Leydig cells, and these are the source of testosterone. The produced sperms are stored in epididymis for maturation. The tubes which carry sperms to the seminal vesicles are known as vas deferens. Seminal fluid is produced by the vesicles which mixes the sperms to produce semen. The main portion of semen is produced by exocrine prostate gland. This fluid provides nutrition and support to sperms. Bulbourethral glands secrete slippery fluid as pre-ejaculate which lowers the acidic pH due to passage of urine and also acts as lubricant for the passage of sperms and semen. The penis delivers the semen during ejaculation from urethra. 

In females, the egg production takes place in ovaries which are almond shaped. The ovaries also produce the hormones; oestrogen and progesterone. Ovaries are surrounded by accumulation of cells known as ovarian follicles, in these eggs are protected till maturation. After getting hormonal signals, mature egg is expelled from the ovary and is drifted by the tiny hair like structures called cilia into the fallopian tubes or oviducts.

Explain how hormones control the reproductive system and how levels of each hormone change during pregnancy

Answer: Hypothalamus in the brain signals the release of Gonadotropin releasing hormone, which directs the pituitary gland to regulate the reproductive system.

Source of hormone

Hormone

Function during menstruation cycle

Function during pregnancy

Pituitary gland

Follicle Stimulating hormone

(FSH)

To change primary follicle into mature ovarian follicle. It controls ovum production.

Pituitary gland

Leutenizing hormone

(LH)

It induces the ovaries to produce hormones. It activates ovulation and stimulates development of corpus luteum.

Ovaries

Oestrogen

(Produced by the placenta during pregnancy)

It promotes maturation and release of single ovum in every menstruation cycle.

Oestrogen level increases. Nutrient supply, blood supply to the growing embryo is increased. It activates other pregnancy hormones to support the development of placenta and prepares mother’s body for lactation, and enlargement of breasts.

By the ovaries in the corpus luteum

Progesterone

For the reception and development of fertilized ovum it prepares the lining of uterus called the endometrium wall. It inhibits the production of oestrogen after ovulation has taken place.

After ovulation, all the levels of hormones drop significantly such as FSH, LH, and oestrogen. Progesterone level increases and endometrium wall thickens.

Levels of progesterone are very high. It supports the essential needs of the developing embryo. It checks the premature contraction of uterine walls and also constructs the musculature of pelvic wall.

 
On pregnancy, the growing placenta releases human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which maintains pregnancy and stops occurrence of menstrual cycle. This hCG is found in pregnant women’s blood and also passed in the urine. The hCG is an indicator in case of pregnancy, the levels are investigated to know birth defects and other pregnancy related issues. Other hormones involved during pregnancy are oxytocin and prostaglandins that helps in muscle contractions.

Critically evaluate the following four forms of contraception, outline the advantages and disadvantages of each before reaching a conclusion as to which are seen as best methods 

Method of contraception

Evaluation of advantage

Evaluation of disadvantage

Final evaluation

Male condom

Highly effective to prevent pregnancy if they are used accurately.

It does not involve any use of hormones.

It is easily available without prescription.

It also protects from sexually transmitted diseases.

It may break or slip off if not used accurately.

People might be allergic to the latex.

Best method for birth control. Reported to be 98% effective, if used following proper instructions.

Pill

It is observed that women have irregular menstrual cycles; therefore, pills have been reported to maintain predictability and regularity of menstrual cycle.

It also protects from anaemia (reduced blood loss due to shorter menstrual cycles), ovarian cysts, and pelvic diseases and many more health related problems.

Side-effects have been mentioned due to usage of such pills in the beginning months. For example, diabetes, heart attack, blood pressure, weight gain and so on.

Best and safest method for birth control. Reports suggest 99% effectivity to prevent pregnancy. Highly recommended for women.

Intrauterine device

It is easy to use, and stays in place for more than five years. Breast feeding is not affected by using the device; therefore, it is appropriate for lactating mothers. Weight gain is not an issue with this method. On discontinuing the device, fertility is regained soon.

It is costly and only a health professional can insert or remove it. It does not protect from sexually transmitted diseases. It might also cause infection in uterus or other pelvic inflammatory disease when device is inserted.

It is also reported to be highly effective 98-99% to prevent pregnancy.

Rhythm method

This method is also known as fertilization awareness method (FAM). It is inexpensive, and no medication is required. There are no side-effects of this method. It can be stopped easily if couple decides to get pregnant.

This method tracks female menstrual cycle to find out when is the fertile period. Thus, tracking of cycle needs accuracy and consistency minimum for six months.

It does not protect from sexually transmitted diseases.

Its failure rate is high; therefore, this is reported to be the least dependable method.

Huntington’s disease

Answer: It is a brain disorder which is seen in adults at the age of thirties or forties. It is reported that mutation in HTT gene causes Huntington’s disease. This gene produces a protein named huntingtin but its function is not known. This involves a DNA segment repeat CAG trinucleotide which is normally 10 to 35 times but in this disease condition the repeat is 36 to 120 times.

In this genetic disease, the pattern of transmission is autosomal dominant which implies that presence of dominant gene will develop the disease. For example: when parents are crossed: HH, Hh genotypes will be sufferer. Only non-sufferer will be the individuals having hh. There will be no carriers of the gene.

Cystic fibrosis 

It is a serious disorder in which the damage is caused to the respiratory system. A defect in the gene results in loss of regulation of in and out movement of water and salt. The individual developing this disease fails to produce a protein named cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). As a result, the mucus thickens to block the air pathways and damages lungs as it is easily prone to infections now.

How hormones control the reproductive system and how levels of each hormone change during pregnancy

In this genetic condition, the pattern of transmission is autosomal recessive which implies that only the presence of recessive genes will develop disease (ff). For example: when parents are crossed, other genotypes FF (dominant) will be non-sufferer and Ff will be carrier. The carriers will transfer the disease to next generation but never develop the disease themselves.

Genetic counselling is an important consideration, particularly for couples at risk of a range of genetic based conditions and predispositions. 

                   Medical conditions are observed in individuals which might be result of mutations or genetic disorders. These diseases are inherited to next generations. The individuals might receive abnormal pregnancy tests through blood tests, ultrasound, and amniocentesis. Sometimes diseases are observed which are specific to particular groups such as sickle cell anaemia, and Tay-Sachs disease, found in African Americans and Ashkenazi Jews respectively. Therefore, genetic counselling provides advice and information regarding genetic conditions of the diseases. Genetic counselling is performed by specially trained health professionals who analyse the probable chances of genetic defects in expecting mother or any family member. To achieve this, they study the past health history of the individual and family. The genetic counsellor helps individual to find out whether they are carrier of a particular gene or mutation which can be transmitted to their children. The genetic counsellors provide complete information about tests and treatment.

                  A genetic counsellor on diagnosing the prevailing symptoms of the genetic disease or going through the history of family with genetic disorder by drawing a family tree, advices the individual for genetic tests. To investigate such genetic diseases, tests have to be carried out. Therefore, the role of a genetic counsellor is to guide patients and their families regarding the probable risks of genetic disorders by recognizing and examining them. They study the patients thoroughly for inheritance patterns and possibilities of recurrence. The genetic counsellor explains the test results and treatments as well.  

For the genetic tests, DNA is collected from blood sample or from amniotic fluid of pregnant mothers. The types of genetic counselling available are for prenatal, new-borns, carrier testing, diagnostic tests and so on.

  1.  Preimplantation and Prenatal testing:

In Preimplantation diagnosis, testing is performed in the embryo prior to implantation in the uterus of mother; this is possible through IVF (In vitro fertilization) technology. It is only possible if one of the parents is carrier and they suspect that their child might develop the disease. Then they go for IVF technology and preimplantation diagnosis.

If results are positive then parents decide to terminate that embryo and implant the disease or mutation free embryo.

Prenatal screening is done to find out any chromosomal or genetic defect in the developing foetus before birth. This is carried out in pregnant mother and complete information regarding the health of the foetus is investigated. This information helps the parents to decide upon the pregnancy. If the parents wish they can abort the pregnancy or if they wish to continue then how they have to deal with disease is advised by the genetic counsellor. Though, this test cannot detect all the genetic disorders, still it gives positive results for few diseases.

  1.  Predictive and Pre-symptomatic testing:

 In this test, the genetic mutations or defects which appear after birth or later in life are detected. The purpose of this test is to derive whether a person is carrying a defective gene without developing the disease at the time of testing. Before onset of symptoms, its probable chances are detected with this test. Then the counsellor interprets the result and makes decision for the treatment.

Websites 

Male reproductive system

https://www.innerbody.com/image/repmov.html 

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1899075-overview 

Female reproductive system and hormonal changes during pregnancy

https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/female-reproductive-system

https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/bodily-changes-during#

HormonalChanges1 

https://www.biology-pages.info/S/SexHormones.html 

Oral contraceptives 

https://www.healthline.com/health/birth-control-rhythm-method 

https://www.halton.ca/cms/one.aspx?portalId=8310&pageId=11025 

https://www.pamf.org/teen/sex/birthcontrol/condom.html 

https://www.netdoctor.co.uk/conditions/sexual-health/a2209/condoms-contraception/

https://www.emedexpert.com/compare/birth-control-advantages.shtml 

https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/tw9523 

https://www.news-medical.net/health/IUD-Advantages-and-Disadvantages.aspx 

Huntington disease

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/huntington-disease

https://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Huntingtons-disease/Pages/Causes.aspx

Cystic fibrosis

https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/cf/causes 

Genetic counselling for genetic disorders

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/testing/uses

https://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Genetics/Pages/genetic-testing-and-counselling.aspx

https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/prenatal-testing

https://www.webmd.com/baby/your-guide-prenatal-testing#1

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/273415-overview

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My Assignment Help. 'The Essay Explores The Roles Of Structures In Reproductive System, Hormones, Pregnancy, Contraception, And Genetic Conditions.' (My Assignment Help, 2022) <https://myassignmenthelp.com/free-samples/sk299-human-biology/male-and-female-reproductive-system-file-8B358.html> accessed 29 March 2024.

My Assignment Help. The Essay Explores The Roles Of Structures In Reproductive System, Hormones, Pregnancy, Contraception, And Genetic Conditions. [Internet]. My Assignment Help. 2022 [cited 29 March 2024]. Available from: https://myassignmenthelp.com/free-samples/sk299-human-biology/male-and-female-reproductive-system-file-8B358.html.

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