Sexism, Gender Stereotypes, and Gender Socialization

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit IV

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit IV

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Discuss prejudice and discrimination from a historical-cultural perspective.
1.1 Describe the current theories about the origin of gender-role stereotypes and their perpetuation.

5. Apply psychological principles to personal and social issues surrounding prejudice and discrimination.
5.1 Use psychological terminology to explain phenomena in today’s society related to gender stereotypes and sexism.

7. Classify the many different forms in which prejudice and discrimination can become manifest (i.e., each of the types of isms).
7.1 Discuss the definitions of sex versus gender and various types and instances of sexism 

Just as race (or one’s concept of race) is discernible in less than a second, biological sex is one of the main categories by which we classify each other (Blaine, 2013). In this unit, you will read about qualities assigned to males and females and explore whether they are innate traits or influenced by societal forces.

To begin, psychological study understands the term sex to refer to a biological category. Already one can see questions arise concerning intersexed and transgendered individuals, but for the purposes of this unit on sexism we will focus on female and male sexes. If sex is dictated by biology, then gender, in psychological terminology, is a societal construct. “Gender refers to the traits and abilities associated with males and females” (Blaine, 2013, p. 114).

Your textbook provides Table 6.1 (Blaine, 2013, p. 115) to show generally agreed upon cultural stereotypes of each gender. “Stereotypically speaking, men act and women relate” (p. 114). Recall the stereotype content model from Unit III which discussed basing generalizations on a supposed evaluation of warmth and competence. As you may guess, the traditional stereotype of women in Western society leans toward higher stereotypic warmth and a lower level of competence. Stereotypes appear as envious (of high competence/low warmth women) or paternalistic (needing to care for very warm/incompetent women). Remember as you read that not just facts but also perceptions can activate stereotypes.

Gender bias refers to the higher value placed on traditionally masculine stereotypes. If you refer back to Table

• (Blaine, 2013, 115) you can see that the positive stereotypes of men include being active, self- competent, and a feeling of superiority; while the positives for women include being gentle, understanding, and aware of others’ feelings. Read the interesting studies described in your textbook regarding the social transmission of gender bias in something as seemingly benign as a coloring book or a cereal box. You will read that gender bias can favor women on occasion, but this is only in traditionally feminine occupations (Blaine, 2013).

Unfortunately, gender bias has pervaded the field of psychology far longer than you may think. Your textbook provides examples of modern diagnoses that tend to pathologize traditionally feminine qualities (Blaine,  2013). Indeed, as far back as ancient Greece, hysterical women were so named because hyster (meaning womb) was thought to make people go insane. Changes have been made in recent editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to reduce language that is prejudicial to a number of social groups.

Prejudice and Discrimination from a Historical-Cultural Perspective

Western society generally values qualities associated with men higher than those associated with women. The traditional standpoint is that women can be kind and quite lovely, but they are not all that competent outside of traditional gender roles. The ones who are heads of companies must be horribly cold and probably would not make good wives and mothers.

Next, you will learn about two forms of sexism: hostile and benevolent sexism (Blaine, 2013). As the names suggest, hostile sexism is more blatant, expects women to subject to traditional gender roles and abhors feminist ideals. (Which personality type from Unit II might you associate with this kind of sexism?) Benevolent sexism places women on a pedestal; they are idealized, delicate, and need to be cared for. You will read some interesting research findings regarding how not only men but women can also hold these sexist attitudes (particularly benevolent sexism), even though both forms of sexism reinforce a patriarchal position that women are subservient.

So, if we remove the sexism, are there still real differences between women and men in society? In discussions on intellectual strengths, women are generally thought to be better communicators and men are better with math and logic (Blaine, 2013). Some studies corroborate this belief, but Blaine points out that there are societal factors at play. Similarly, the stereotype that women are generally more helpful than men appears to be true except in heroic circumstances. You will also read about aggressiveness and gullibility in your textbook; without thinking very hard you can almost automatically predict the stereotypes regarding these psychological traits; read carefully for explanations of studies on these phenomenon.

A handful of ways that men and women are different have been established, but what causes these differences? Briefly consider the following theories on gender socialization: social interaction and social roles (Blaine, 2013). The theory that gender arises out of social interaction has two components. First, our expectations about differences between men and women guide our interactions and work to confirm our beliefs (recall how stereotypes like to be reinforced). “Second, situations vary in the extent to which one’s gender is relevant. The more gendered a situation is, the more active and influential our gender expectations will be in that situation” (Blaine, 2013, p. 125-126).

The second theory, and the one that Blaine (2013) cites as most supported by research, deals with gender as a function of social roles. If society dictates that women are more suited to housework than to a business meeting and therefore, guides them into the kinds of work deemed appropriate. Think of it another way; a  child is consistently told they are destined to excel in a scientific career. Their toys are geared toward this outcome and they may even take advanced classes in school leading to a lifelong study in the sciences.

Because they have been told this all their life, this child—generally a boy in our society—has been socialized into a particular career field. This is not to say he may not choose a different path, but the groundwork has been laid out for him by those around him. It follows that this child seems to score higher than his female classmates on tests of scientific knowledge because more has been provided to him and is expected by his society. The textbook provides further examples and studies relating to gender socialization from the family, the school system, and the media.

You will read about overall self-concept, or self-construal—how one views themselves in relation to the world around them (Blaine, 2013). Persons with an independent self-construal (traditionally men) think of themselves as autonomous and independent. Interdependent self-construal means viewing one’s self in relation to others and relationships (traditionally a feminine stereotype). Psychology is not in total agreement on these delineations, however, it is thought that traditional gender roles play a role in their persistence.

Finally, think of gender development in evolutionary terms. You may be familiar with theories that our development as a species still impacts how we live today, including our social strata. “To maximize the perpetuation of their genes, males must aggressively pursue and mate with as many females as possible. Females, however, must carefully select, and remain with, a devoted and responsible mate to maximally perpetuate her genes” (Blaine, 2013, p. 131). The answer, then, may be that evolution set the stage for stereotypic gender roles and that socialization has perpetuated them ever since.