Policy Formation: A Critical Discussion

You are required to provide a critical discussion of policy formation. As part of this discussion, you are to draw on the readings and lecture materials available in this unit. In addition to the discussion paper, you are required to participate in the online discussion 1 forum.
Your discussion paper must respond to the three following questions:
1. What is the nature of policy (Your response to this question must move beyond just a description of policy–you
should address the complexities involved in defining this concept.)
2. What is the role of theory and evidence in policy formation
3. How do networks and stakeholders exert power in the policy formation process

Your analysis is an introductory discussion paper on policy formation that addresses the three areas noted above.Importantly, you should not critique a particular area of policy or a specific policy; rather, your critical discussion
should focus on the broader issues and processes involved in policy formation. You are welcome to use each of the questions posed above as subheadings in your paper, or you may like to structure your paper dierently. What is important is that your paper responds in detail to each of the three questions posed above, makes links between
them, and is appropriately referenced with academic literature.

In order to complete this assessment you must:
– Complete readings relevant to Weeks 1 - 3
– Actively participate in the online discussion 1 forum
– Draw on examples from lecture presentations and readings to illustrate your argument (you must reference all
literature used (i.e., articles and texts, not the lecture notes))
– Engage academic literature to support your discussion points, and cite all literature used
– Produce a discussion paper that is well written, edited, and referenced appropriately for Master level study
– Use a minimum of seven scholarly sources

Nature of Policy

Policy can be defined as the principles or rules that have been set to offer guidance on the decisions and achievement of rational outcomes. Moreover, it can be defined as the purposive course of action that is based on societal values that have to adhere when handling a matter or some concern and offering hypotheses on certain outcomes that can lead to the achievement of that given purpose as well. There are many policies that can be grouped in reference to their nature. The following are some of the common nature of policies: public policies, business policies, and fiscal policies among many others. In this essay, we shall consider policy formation in general but majoring examples from public policy.(Geyer & Rihani, 2010)

Generally, all policies despite their nature of existence have some common and distinctive characteristics. Some of these characteristics include the following:

• Authoritative in nature
• Enforceable to all relevant parties
• They tend to be flexible and adaptable
• Feasible mode
• Clear to be understood
• Transparent
• Consultative (Cotler, 2008)

Policy formulation is a very complex activity that is practiced by almost all individuals and organizations for future success. Working under regulation and control of certain guidelines is what binds individual since each and every person, given a chance, could do as per their will. The nature of a policy is the most important aspect in policy formation. The nature of policy is determined by the type of organization, government, needs, and the objectives to be achieved. This explains why the government or public policies differ from business-related policies. However, despite the nature of the policies, their formulations have almost a similar process. The following is the commonly used policy formulation process. These steps also give a hint on the complexity experienced when developing different natures of policies.

Problem identification

Different organizations or entities have different problems. This means that the first step of determining the nature of the policy to adopt is to identify the problem to be solved. Problem identification involves stakeholders raising concern on an issue that they have noted to be affecting the public or rather the organization. This is followed by defining the problem in broader terms through several platforms. This is to invite all the interested group of individuals in raising relevant forums for considerations. The complexity in this step comes in when so many interested parties have many views on the nature of the policy.(Domhoff, 2008)

Agenda setting and stakeholder engagement

After identifying a problem, this is forwarded via various bodies so that they can be discussed on a matter like the appropriate time that needs to be allocated for discussion by the right authorities. The issues or agenda of discussion are given at this stage.

Common Characteristics of Policies

Policy formulation

The solutions to the identified problems are therefore made so as to deal with the identified challenges. Inaction or defeat of a proposal at this stage is still regarded as policymaking.

Budgeting

This follows after authorization by the relevant authorities. It’s made to allocate important resources that are necessary for the implementation process.

Implementation and evaluation

It’s now the duty of the executives responsible for actualizing the policies or putting them into practice to do so as per the requirements stipulated in the policy. Later in the course of time, the public, or the organization stakeholders can examine and evaluate if the problems they had come across are now fully solved. The feedback used to determine if there is a need for change or to recommend for improvement or adjustment.

The role of theory and evidence in policy formation

Compelling basic leadership requires a word of wisdom, also, that relies upon educated utilization of proof or evident both in creating policies and in assessing its impact when actualized. Along these lines, the estimation of government's execution to the advantage of nationals is expanded. However, the connection between evidence and approach development is neither direct nor unidirectional. Policy development is a mind-boggling process, in which numerous variables other than proof should be conveyed to hold up under.

The multifaceted nature of strategy arrangement originates from at minimum two issues. The first is the need to adjust the numerous contributions to the procedure, (for example, thorough investigation of an issue, investigation of social qualities, examination of political setting, and investigation of financial effects). Also, the procedure is additionally convoluted by the inconstancy of take-up limit and the hunger for such data by arrangement creators. There isn't generally the way of life and ability inside the open administration to search out suitable proof also, to basically evaluate and apply it to a strategy question.

This unpredictability has been at the core of a noteworthy worldwide move in approach making inside vote based social orders in the course of recent years. The idea of 'proof based policy making' started to pick up all through the 1990s, with the UK Bureau Office obviously embracing it as a spurring reasoning in its 1999 white paper modernizing government.(Puddy, 2011) .

From that point forward, researchers have included subtlety, reminding us that strategy must consider both evidence got from research, and additionally a comprehension of social qualities as well as theories. Thus, in its more contemporary cycle, evidence or theory-based policy has been all the more precisely re-give a role as evidence or theory-based or informed policy, which isn't to lessen the job of look into research informed evidence. In actuality, it has served to completely set up a specific place for hearty proof among the various contributions to policy development.(Everett, 2003)

Steps in the Policy Formulation Process

To come up with theory or evidence-based policies, the following requirements have to be met.

• There must be skilled leaders or  group of experts within the public offices for public policies and skilled management in the case of organizations
• There is a compulsory need on the access to well developed scientific facilities, and research enabled environment since evidence is based on clear and continuous research.
• Should have the ability to evaluate all manner of found evidence with no sense of bias or vigor. The ability is gained from personnel with concerted efforts to uplift potentials within the society of practice.

How networks and stakeholders exert power in policy formation process

Networks and stakeholders play an important role in the policy formation process. In the concept of policymaking, a stakeholder can be defined by giving two types of stakeholder, the primary stakeholder, and secondary stakeholders. (O'Haire, 2011) The primary stakeholders are those that will directly be affected by policies being developed. On the side, the secondary stakeholders are those indirectly affected by the policies being proposed for formulation. They include such people like nongovernmental organization and professional bodies.

A stakeholder is termed to be the direct recipient and beneficiaries of any policy formulated. The policy formed should either affect their lives either positively or negatively and therefore, stakeholder greatly determine either the success if the failure of any policy be it public or organizational policy. The network is also important in that they link up different stakeholders who come together as explained above to share on common problems the face.

 For the recent past, stakeholder involvement in the process of policy making has greatly risen due to the emergence of new development model which requires different state role based on plural structures, political legitimacy and need for consensus in our organizations. (Sen, 2008)Networks and stakeholder involvement is classified into three types depending on how they exert power in policy formation

• Instructive-decisions are made by government or organization authorities but there are set mechanisms for communication
• Consultative – the authorities have the mandate to make policies but leave room for influence by all stakeholders on the process of policy making and outcomes as well
• Cooperative – the primary stakeholder take part in the whole policy formation in collaboration with the respective authorities and act as partners

The networks and networking have an important role in bringing together different stakeholder as indicated in the process of policy formation.  This therefore gives the stakeholders some powers to yield positive outcomes which include effective policies and plans to better implementation. The stakeholder power leads to better decision making in the below ways:

• By enabling development of  more real and effective policies through collective information and broader experiences into decision making
• Through embedment of modern initiatives into already existing legitimate local organizations and values
• by building political support for, and reducing opposition to, policy proposals, through incorporation of stakeholder concerns

Conclusion

Policy formation is a complex task. It involves lot of activities and stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement in policy formation is important due to the following:(Burton, 2009)

• they help in identifying areas of disagreement and pinpoint what’s contributing to such differences
• help in harmonizing recommendations with societal expectations and needs (Terry, 2013)
• help in promoting transparency

Burton, H., 2009. Developing stakeholder involvement for introducing public health genomics into public policy. Public Health Genomics, pp. 11-19.

Cotler, C., 2008. Public Policy Formulation - Process and Tools. development, pp. 1-10.

Domhoff, W. G., 2008. The Policy-Formation Process. In: The powers that be. s.l.:Vintage Books, pp. 45-89.

Everett, S., 2003. The Policy Cycle: Democratic Process or Rational Paradigm revisited?. Australian Journal of Public Administration, pp. 65-70.

Geyer, R. & Rihanna, S., 2010. Complexity and Public Policy. London Routledge .

O'Haire, C., 2011. Engaging Stakeholders to Identify and Prioritize Future Research Needs. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, p. 56.

Puddy, R. W., 2011. A Guide to the Continuum of Evidence of Effectiveness. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Understanding Evidence Part 1, p. 32.

Sen, S., 2008. Involving Stakeholders in policymaking. Planning and management, pp. 23-29.

Terry, S. F., 2013. Don’t just invite us to the table: authentic community engagement. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers., pp. 443-445.