Common Rocks In Construction: Granite, Limestone, And More - An Essay.

Describe granite and limestone using the standard code of practice for describing

Classification, characteristics and various uses of common rocks in construction

Aggregates are types of small-sized rock materials that are commonly used in construction projects. They include different kinds of rock such as sand, geosynthetic, crushed stone, gravel, etc. One of the reasons why aggregates are used in the construction industry is for economic benefits by reducing cost of concrete. In most cases, aggregates are used for constructing sub bases, where they are not mixed with water and cement. Characteristics of aggregates also have direct influence of the properties of concrete mix formed. These characteristics are dependent on aggregate classification.

Aggregates can be classified based on different parameters, including: size (fine, coarse and single size aggregates), shape (angular, flaky, rounded and irregular aggregates), unit weight (light, usual and heavy weight aggregates) and geological origin (natural and artificial aggregates).

Aggregate characteristics are influenced by the following properties: bulk density, absorption and porosity, fine aggregate bulking, specific gravity, particle texture and shape, moisture content and strength of aggregate.  

Rocks contain different minerals. But besides the minerals, other characteristics of rocks such as structure and form depend on formation mode. There are 3 main kinds of rocks that are widely used in construction industry. These are: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.

Characteristics	Description
Silica content	Silica content in these rocks ranges between 40 and 80%. The most important elements are iron and magnesium
Inappropriately eroded	The rocks can resist erosion but with time, they start weathering at a relatively slow rate
Non porous	These rocks does not allow infiltration, penetration or permeation of water
Lack of fossils	The rocks do not contain any fossils
Crystalline & non-crystalline	The rocks are both crystalline and non-crystalline. Crystalline igneous rocks are formed when magma cools down slowly within the empty spaces and crystallizes before coming out. On the other hand, the rock is no-crystalline if the magma rising from the cracks to the surface does not get adequate time to crystallize inside the empty spaces.

These rocks have several distinct characteristics from those of igneous rocks. Their formation usually takes place in marine environments, such as shallow seas and lakes.

Characteristics	Description
Porosity	Their different particle sizes make them permeable. The size of particles can be small, medium or large, thus allowing infiltration of water at different rates.
Stratification	The rock is made up of numerous layers known as strata. During their formation, each layer is created one at a time, a process known as stratification.
Prompt erosion	The rocks are weathered and therefore they erode very quickly in comparison with other types of rocks
Fossilization	The rocks contain fossils such as plant debris and dead animals. Archeologists use these fossils for determining the rocks’ age and obtaining other vital information about evolution of animal and plant life during that time.
Imprints and marks	These rocks contain imprints and marks that are caused by sea waves. Typically, these rocks are at the shoreline hence they get hit by sea waves that create imprints and marks on the rocks. The imprints and marks can also be referred to as ripple marks.

 Characteristics of metamorphic ricks

Characteristics	Description
Hot magma	During their formation, the rocks rise at an extremely high temperature
Geothermal heat	Heat below the earth’s surface influences metamorphism and formation of metamorphic rocks. The geothermal heat is usually very high

Use of rocks as a construction material started thousands of years ago. Until today, rocks are still widely used as construction materials because of their superior properties such as aesthetics, strength and durability. Their aesthetic value makes them suitable for decorative design elements such as monuments, facings and memorials. There are 3 main types of rocks that are commonly used as construction materials: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.

Igneous rocks are those formed when molten magma from underneath the earth’s surface cools. Obsidian is an example of an igneous rock. Sedimentary rocks are formed from plant debris and dead animals that become compacted over the years. Sandstone is one example of a sedimentary rock. Metamorphic rocks are existing rocks on the earth’s surface that have been transformed by high temperature and pressure levels. An example of a metamorphic rock is marble.

Rocks can be used in construction for building or erecting structures such as walls, buildings, bridges, dams, roads, etc. Extraction of these rocks is usually done in quarry sites before they are transported to the factory for processing. There are different types of construction methods used with rocks. One of these in referred to as traditional stone masonry construction method. This is a conventional method and is rarely used nowadays because it requires a lot of man and labor hours. Additionally, a lot of money is required for quarrying the materials and transporting them from one location to another.

Nevertheless, traditional stone masonry method has found effective use in modern days for making decorative finishes. Using this method, thin pieces are constructed using selected rocks such as slate. The pieces are then glued on concrete block walls, a technique called stone cladding. This is more efficient as it does not require construction of the entire structure using a large number of stones. The main use for rocks is as aggregate sometimes used in construction depending on where the construction is located. 

Characteristics of igneous rocks

Bowen's reaction series is a means of classifying igneous silicate minerals by the temperature at which they crystallize. Minerals at the topmost have a reasonably high crystallization temperature, which means that they crystallize first from a cooling magma. The lower portion of Bowen's Reaction Series is controlled more by chemistry than the upper part. The increase of silica content lowers the melting point. Quartz, at the bottom of the series with 100% SiO2, has the lowest melting point of about 700°C. Thus, lower minerals in Bowen’s series have a higher to chemical weathering. Quartz is only prone to dissolution. However, other minerals continue to weather in the geologic surroundings, to more stable forms at the low temperatures and pressures of the Earth's surface. all of this answer is irrelevant.   The point of the Bowen series is that the cooler the temperature of crystalisation the nearer to stable conditions is the rock.  Quartz crystalizes at around 600 which makes it s=more stable at temperatures around 20 than rocks that crystalize at higher temperatures 

An aggregate is basically a mixture of sand, gravel and rocks. These materials are mixed to form one composite materials such as concrete and asphalt. Aggregate materials are usually sourced from quarry zones in different parts of the world.

The main reason for the wide use of aggregates in construction is because of their superior reinforcement that adds significant strength to the composite materials or components such as retaining walls and foundations. Aggregates are used so as to improve stability of the structure, such as such as roads and foundations, where the aggregates can be used as base materials below the foundations. In this kind of projects, aggregates are used to prevent different settlement of the structure being constructed.

Before starting to construct a foundation, the first task is to collect suitable materials and resources. Most foundations comprise of aggregates i.e. a mixture of sand and rocks, combined with water and cement and allowed to solidify so as to create a foundation. Therefore the structure of the foundation is made by mixing different types of rocks and soils.

It is very important to know the type of soil on which a structure is being constructed. This is because the type of soil has direct impact on the structure’s foundation and overall stability. Thus is it important to know the specific ground conditions so as to select the most appropriate foundation solution. The best way to do so is to contact the local authority. Most authorities have building control departments that share information on different types of soils within particular areas. This helps contractors to know the most suitable type of foundation for a particular structure in a specific area.

Soils are broadly classified depending on their particle sizes. Based on this system, soils can be classified as very coarse, coarse and fine soils, as shown in Table 1 below

Very coarse soils	BOULDERS		> 200 mm
	COBBLES		60 - 200 mm
Coarse soils	G GRAVEL	coarse	20 - 60 mm
		medium	6 - 20 mm
		fine	2 - 6 mm
	S SAND	coarse	0.6 - 2.0 mm
		medium	0.2 - 0.6 mm
		fine	0.06 - 0.2 mm
Fine soils	M SILT	coarse	0.02 - 0.06 mm
		medium	0.006 - 0.02 mm
		fine	0.002 - 0.006 mm
	C  CLAY		< 0.002 mm

Table 1: Grain size range of soils

The three main types of soils based on their characteristics are: clay soils (small grains), silt soils (medium grains) and sand (large grains). Clay particles are usually greasy and sticky when moist and become hard as they dry. It is difficult to clean off clay. Silt particles are dusty and dry, and can be easily brushed or cleaned off. Sand particles are grained and can be seen by the naked eye.

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks

Table 2 below shows different types of soils and their parent rocks

Type of soil	Type of parent rock
Basalt	Igneous
Granite	Igneous
Limestone	Sedimentary
Carboniferous	Sedimentary
Chalk	Sedimentary
Sandstone	Sedimentary
Clay	Sedimentary
Slate	Metamorphic

Table 2: Types of soils and their parent rocks

Limestone is usually found, extracted and produced from marine environments such as marine water. Several decades ago, limestone was a common material in construction of structures. However, use of this material in the construction industry has decreased as is now used for building foundations. Limestone can be extracted from quarry sites and directly used as base materials. Some areas also have low graded limestone that contains some clay. This kind of limestone can be processed further to form cement, which can be used to make concrete for building foundations and other structures.

Basalt can be obtained nearby lava highlands in form of grained and textured volcanic rocks. These rocks are formed as a result of continuous cooling down of molten lava from high temperatures. Some basalts were produced millions of years back. Basalt can be used for making foundations, floorings and window sills. The basalt can also be used in highway construction, where it is crushed into powder that can be converted into a fibre that is very resistant to heat. When basalt is used to make cement mixture, it adds significant strength to the concrete, which can be used to make foundations or as a fire proof coating on gypsum boards.

There are different sizes of aggregates and each is suitable for particular uses. Producers can supply ready mixed aggregates though this is only suitable for small projects such as repair works. Contractors are usually recommended to mix sands and stones by themselves because this allows them to vary mortar proportions to suit their intended use. Nevertheless, the type of aggregate used still depend on the size and shape of the material.

Aggregates can be differentiated by their roughness, where grinded stones and gravels are passed through sieves of different sizes. This helps in choosing the maximum size of the rock that is suitable for the project at hand.     

The type of foundation usually relies on the type of soil. Below are some of the different types of soils:

Sand and gravel: usually, strip foundations are created using sand and gravel sub soils of depth up to 700 mm and which have sufficient bearing capacity. The bearing capacity of soil usually gets halved if the level of water table is quite high. This is why foundations should be formed as high as possible. Therefore when using gravel and sand to make foundations, reinforced wide strip and shallow foundations are the best types of foundations for this soils. On the other hand, gravel is also held together properly by sand when it is damped and compacted even though trenches may separate. Because of this, sheet piling is usually used (as shown in Figure 4 below) so as to enhance stability of the ground in trenches while waiting for the concrete to be poured.  This is not really relevant.   Rocks in foundations are mainly the aggregate in concrete but can also be rocks that form the base of a structure.

Characteristics of metamorphic rocks

Rock: rocks such as limestone, sandstone and granite have very high bearing capacity. Before building, the rock must be stripped and flattened. The rocks are usually impermeable hence the topsoil must have a drainage system so as to remove rain or surface water.

Clay: it is estimated that 200 mm top layer of clay is usually washed off as a result of crust movement of the earth due to natural occurrences and growth and shrinkage depending on moisture content. This means that if clay has to be used for creating a foundation, the foundation must be excavated to a depth where the clay’s dampness or moisture content remains constant. When clay is used for concreting foundations, a heave is usually used to guard the trench. This is done by lining the trench using a compressible layer like clayboard.

Loose waterlogged sand and peat: this is a poor subsoil but it can be used to make strip foundations if the peat is uncovered so as to find an appropriate load bearing ground depth of 1.5 m. Peat is an organic material that is relatively soft. They are usually formed below several deposits of firm soil. It is not recommended to build on organic soils but if it has to be done then reinforced raft foundation should be used 

Firm clay on top of soft clay: this type of soil is suitable for conventional strip foundations. However, digging must not be very deep or else it can amplify stress on the softer clay below. The best way to resolve this is issue is by digging wide strip foundations and reinforcing them with steel. In most cases, an engineered foundation may be needed for this type of soil.

Strip foundation: the 2 main types of strip foundation are: wide and deep strip foundations. Wide strip foundation is usually used in areas where the bearing capacity of the soil is low or when the soil is soft. The foundation spreads or distributes load over a wider area comprising of reinforced steel that reduces the loading. Deep strip foundation is built at a relatively low level so as to reach the soil with an appropriate bearing capacity. A wider and deeper trench is then dug so as to create more work space. Concrete is usually poured at a lower level of the strip foundation then masonry walls are constructed to the level of the ground.

Raft foundation: it is usually used in areas with weak soils such as peat and clay. A raft foundation is required when the soil requires a large bearing area and using wide strip foundations would be costly because the foundations will have to be spread out broadly. Therefore it becomes cheaper if concrete is poured once to make a big reinforced concrete slab as the foundation.

Rock material: this is the whole rock portion. Rock materials have different densities, which are influenced by the rock material’s porosity. One of the rock material’s most important mechanical property is compressive strength, which is used for the design, modelling and analysis of structures.

Common rocks used in construction

Rock mass: in the context of civil engineering, rock mass is a distinct material from other kinds of structural resources that are used in construction. The material is usually different and discontinuous but it is among the materials found on the surface of the earth that are widely used in construction. There are different classification systems of rock mass, which are used for varied design analyses and engineering stability. These classification systems are usually determined by actual relationships between engineering uses and parameters of rock mass such as foundation and tunnels.  

In general, the difference between rock mass and rock material is that the former refers to the volume of the rock while the latter refers to the composition of the rock.

Practically, it is not easy to describe rock masses and ground conditions because engineers prefer using calculations instead of adjectives. This is what makes rock mechanics and geological engineering very valuable, including tunneling methods and classification systems. In 1946, Terzaghi created a steadfast system that can be used to support tunnels. The system was developed in the U.S. and it was mainly about systems used for classifying tunnel supports. The system provides relatively accurate approximations of loads on tunnel supports based on steel used. The system later became a widespread support classification system.

In most cases, RQD is used as a guide for describing the quality of fractured condition of the rock mass. Civil engineers were among the first users of the RQD system, which has continued to be developed and improved over the years. Today, RQD system is used in mining, engineering geology and geotechnical engineering.

Basically, RQD is used for measuring jointing and degree of fractures present in rock mass, as a % of drill core over a length of at least 10 cm. As shown in Table 3 below, rock masses with ROD less than 50% are considered to be of poor quality while those with over 75% are said to be of good quality.

RQD	Rock mass quality
<25%	very poor
25-50%	poor
50-75%	fair
75-90%	good
90-100%	excellent

Table 3: RQD classification index

RQD is very useful in estimating rock tunnels’ supports. The system is a basic element in majority of classification systems for rock mass, such as rock mass number, slope mass rating (SMR), rock tunnel quality Q-system, and rock mass rating (RMN), among others. There are also different definitions of RQD. The most common definition of RQD is that developed by D.U. Deere in 1967. According to his definition, RQD is a system used to provide a reliable estimate of rock mass quality obtained from drill core logs. Only solid core pieces measuring more than 100 mm are used. 

When analyzing the type of support needed for a tunnel, it is important to consider the fact that RQD can give a wrong value if the joints being evaluated contain thin clay fillings or weathered materials. Additionally, RQD system does not take joint orientation’s direct amount.

In geotechnical engineering, discontinuities occurs when a surface of a material gets altered as a result change of the soil or rock mass’ physical or chemical characteristics. Examples of rock discontinuities are jointing and fracture. Fracturing entails dividing the rock into several pieces or fragments. The main cause of fractures is stress that occurs in rock strength, which reduces cohesion of the rock. Jointing or fracture happens between mechanical and integral discontinuities.

Description of Bowen Series of instability

Rock discontinuities can occur several times with unchanged mechanical properties in one discontinuity or a sequence of discontinuities. The discontinuities make the soil or rock mass to become anisotropic thus affecting the rock material’s engineering performance. Anisotropic means that physical properties of the rock material are different from measured values of the same rock material. good

Soil is the earth’s top layer where plants grow, structures are constructed, etc. Types of soils include sandy, silt and peat soils.

Soil description is used to describe and show the soil’s aesthetics and physical nature. Description can be done in a lab on a soil sample obtained from the field or it can be in situ.

Soil classification entails separating soils into different classes or groups, with each group exhibiting similar behavior and characteristics. Classification of soil is largely based on the soil’s mechanical properties, including strength, stiffness, permeability, etc. Soil classification is very important as it helps geotechnical engineers to get very useful information about the soil’s engineering properties and its suitable applications. Main classification method is particle size

There are different methods that can be used to classify soils by identifying the soil’s particle sizes. One of these methods is sieve analysis. This is the method that will be used in this report. In this method, grain sizes of soils are controlled and separated between different sizes. This is the most common soil classification method. The data is usually obtained from distribution curves of grain sizes used in filters’ aesthetics for dam constructions. The method is also used for determining suitability of soil for various construction projects, such as road construction. Information obtained from sieve analysis can also be used for predicting water movement through the soil.    

The equipment needed to perform this test are: sieves, oven, and mechanical sieve shaker, weighing balance with an accuracy of 0.01g, pestle and mortar.

About 500g of oven dried soil sample was taken and crushed using mortar and pestle so as to disintegrate the soil particles but not to crush them. The mass of the soil sample was precisely controlled to avoid losses. The 10 sieves were prepared and arranged in a descending order starting with the one with the largest opening sizes (lower number) being on top while the one with the smallest opening size (higher number) being at the bottom. The last sieve was number 10 then a pan was placed underneath it for collecting the soil passing through the 10^th sieve. After collecting data, particle size distribution curves for the two soil samples were plotted with the table in Figure 8 below to identify the various types of soils that were being investigated.

In this case, soil 1 is represented by sample A while soil 2 is represented by sample B. The two soil samples are relatively uniform even though sample B appears to be more uniform that sample.Sample A contains largely of sand and a small percentage of coarse silt fine gravel and therefore can be said to be less cohesive. Sample B comprises largely of coarse sand and a small percentage of fine gravel hence it can be said to be more cohesive. Therefore sample A is fine sand soil whereas sample B is a coarse sand soil. Sample A has a lot of clay in it and silt just over 20% is fine enough for clay  

How quarried rock can be used in foundations

Coefficient of curvature is D₃₀²/ D₆₀*D₁₀=1.41²/ (2 *0.6) = 1.657

Where is the coefficient of uniformity etc?

The California Bearing ratio test is penetration test for the evaluation of subgrade and granular pavement layers strength. CBR test results depend on many factors such as dry density, moisture content, and types of soil therefore moulding the sample at a desired density is very important. CBR method gives more importance to the estimation of the strength of the subgrades and the pavement layers, while quality control of pavements relies more on the determination of in situ density and moisture content.

A little more detail of the difference between the two tests and what they show. 

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