Human Trafficking And Neoliberalism: Threats To Global Peace, An Essay.

The purpose of the papers is to examine a case in terms of a theory in International Relations. A successful Term paper should discuss the validity, consistency, and the ability to predict, describe, or prescribe given a political or social phenomenon. Remember that nullification of a theory is as important as verification and in some cases even more important than verification.

Remember that the term paper should place yourself within the canon of IR. These can or should include: Normative Theory, Liberalism, Realism, English School, Constructivism, Marxism, Critical Theory, Post-Structuralism, Post-colonialism, Feminism, Globalization, and International Political Economy (IPE) or International Political Theory.

The application of a theoretical school of IR to a topic of political or historical significance in the international system.

i. Human Trafficking and Neoliberalism

ii. Terrorism in a globalized world

iii. Drugs and international organized crime

Causes and Effects of Human Trafficking

Evidently, in the current era, there have been cases of human trafficking and concepts of neoliberalism. During the past decade, these issues have become so rampant and widespread in some political grounds and international relations. Human trafficking can be referred to as the process where humans are exposed to an exploitative condition mainly for economic growth (Alvarez & Alessi 2012).

Some of the reasons that lead to trafficking include: labor force and labor exploitation in companies, farms and secret households, sexual abuse and exploitation also have led to big contribution in human trafficking and to an extent effecting to forced marriages (Bales & Soodalter 2010). Trafficking has become one of the  major crimes  leading to threat on  human right, In order to curb this, some international relation organizations have come together so as to counter or  fight of this crime. Human trafficking is rated as the fast upcoming activities of the transnational organization of criminals.

This is a crime that has mostly affected less developed countries where the low rank and respect for most women and children assists oppression.

 There is the number of reasons which have facilitated the trafficking of human .Some of the factors include: inequalities within and between different countries where some of people are deemed to be of less value than others. This has mostly affected people from humble backgrounds (Bur chill et al. 2013). Another issue which may have led to the growth of this crime involves restriction policies of immigration. In some countries those policies have been violated making it easy to carry out trafficking business. Some of the factors which have also boosted this crime are poverty, violence, and discrimination.

Recently, researchers have shown interests during the study of different states, such as international organization and transnational actors and their impact on the world politics. This organization have used the solutions from the research to try and curb human trafficking.

Various authors have argued that neoliberalism is the distinct dominating ideology that is shaping countries in the modern world as people live in the age of neoliberalism. These issues have posed a real threat to economic dominance. These are real issues affecting the ideal world raising questions such as, is there a tangible solution that can be addressed to reduce neoliberalism economic dominance and dangers of human trafficking? The current political economy environment seems to have policies that address the issues in an efficient manner (Baylis et al., 2017)

Efforts to Curb Human Trafficking

 Historically, immigrants and indigenous states have been the target for human trafficking and issues regarding the concept of neoliberalism. Neoliberal thought shows that it was at one level in time an influential political ideology. In more recent times neoliberalism has dominated normative political thought (Baylis et al., 2017) the reality, however, is that human trafficking and neoliberalism has had many effects on the global economy. Instead of suppressing the indigenous society scarce resources, the US and European countries should evenly distribute the economic dominance for the overall improvement of the global economy.

Several schools of thoughts regarding international relations address and break further neoliberalism. Therefore we can also ask ourselves whether liberalism is the ultimate solution to global economic peace. In general, neoliberalism has been defined as the outlook of a community or collection of ideas that usually limit the extension of norms and values regarding the conduct of one life domain to the whole life concept (Boas & Gans-Morse, 2009). It is a just mere claim that neoliberalism will achieve the maximum flourishing of the whole life by proper coordination and control as dictated by the norms of one concept The assumption that guide all neoliberal ideas is that human flourishing in life needs the interests of one specific ideas in order to rule.

Neoliberalism refers to a policy model of social justice and economics that is involved in changing the control of economic factors from the public to the private sector. It takes its basic principles from neoclassical economics depicting that state government must limit subsidies and also make significant reforms to tax laws so as to expand the tax base, decrease massive spending patterns and reduce protectionism. It also requires prevention of fixed exchange rates, back deregulation and privatizes business markets that are run by the country in a bid to improve international relations. It is basically an ideology and policy model that emphasizes mostly on the value of free market competition strategies (Bond et al., 2014). Even though there exists a considerable argument regarding the distinguishing structures' thought and practice of neoliberal, it has a close association with laissez-faire economics. In particular, its features involves more emphasis on the growth of economic as the mode to human progress achieving. It has confidence in free markets in order to ensure proper and efficient allocation of the scarce resources. It is also characterized with high emphasis on low nation intervention involving social-economic issues and its trust in the trade and capital freedom.

Impacts of Neoliberalism on Economic Dominance

Various research has been made concerning the art of human trafficking in different parts of the world. This type of illegal trade is said to have started in those early days where people engaged slave trade (Di Nicola 2013). A majority of previous studies addresses the nature of trafficking in adult females to being aimed at sexual exploitation. In the beginning, many did not take this as a big issue resulting to its rise in a global setting.

During the year 2002, a research on international trafficking of women was done in the Latin America, Europe and the United States. Few countries in Asia like Japan were also affected by the trafficking, human trafficking on the global-wide scale has been faced by the introduction of Palermo protocol in preventing, suppressing and placing punishment to those promoting such forms of tragedy. The Palermo protocol acts as a supplement to the meeting against transnational organized crimes.

The introduction of the protocol by several countries shows the need of the states in acting and trying to curb the problem of trafficking of people. In this protocol, the involved states make the declaration that aids in bring down this action. The aim of the protocol is to derive a framework that assists in making the definition on what trafficking is, to reduce trafficking and to assist states unity and collaboration in fighting the problem of human trafficking (Davidson 2010).

 Generally, the Palermo protocol is an agreement/treaty between different states. There are more international treaties that cover every aspect of international relation and facet of state authority. The importance of these treaties historically has been shown by many authors to empower the international domain that bides these treaties authors have completely made various invention on these sectors. Typically, everyone should participate to bring a permanent solution to this problem of human trafficking.

Human trafficking can be analyzed using different theories and how each and every theory has affected the problem of trafficking. The international relation has many theories that give a comprehension of the states' behavior. Debates of traditional are said to be rationalist approaches in one way and constructivist on the other side. The Rationalist theory is one of these theories. It focusses on a singular physical word and social realities. The constructivist approach gives focus on how international relationship aspects are socially constructed (Lee 2013).

In international relation, constructivism is said to be a school of thought theory which gives claims on the aspects of IR by trying to explain that these relations were historically and socially derived/constructed. Realism is another international relation theory that has been dominant in influencing the relationship between different states (Lee 2013). This theory gives claims on relying upon traditional thoughts. In this theory, there exist modern–day realistic strands of thinking which include; states, survival, and self-help. Generally, realists believe that states should be the main actors and the international system is governed by anarchy hence no existence of central authority. Additionally, the realist believes that no state can be entrusted to aid states' survival. Relating this theory to the issue of human trafficking in a way has positively affected human trafficking globally (Shelley 2010). For example, to be able to curb the trafficking, countries should come together and form a central organization that will develop the rules that define the interrelation between countries. Each country should be given the presentation in the central organization. From the theory of realism, understanding countries are ruled by their own rules hence some diminish the respect for human rights by allowing few to engage and make money through this business of human trafficking (Shelley 2010).

Theories Concerning the Issue of Human Trafficking

Human trafficking can also be described using the theory of liberalism. This theory holds and implements state preferences rather than state capabilities hence believing that international institution plays a major role in building cooperation among states. Liberals also raise arguments that international diplomacy is the best way to bring and promote interaction with each other and also support non-violent problem solution. This theory tries to bring the solution through dialog whereby the affected people and states come to the agreement without engaging themselves in war. From the understanding, war and conflicts have highly promoted human trafficking activities in the past as well as in current societies. This type of IR greatly prevents and controls the occurrences of this problem of trafficking as different states and people solve the issues affecting them in a friendly and peaceful manner. With proper institution and diplomacy as described by this theory, different countries can sit together and come up with a solution of controlling this problem (Hoyle, Bosworth & Dempsey, 2011). The states can also formulate rules that will affect all their boundaries by restricting illegal immigration of people across the borders.

Neorealism/structural realism is an IR theory that defines and describes that power is the major factor in international relations. The theory has greatly influenced the relation of different countries for almost the three past decades. The theory stands on the nature that international structure should be described by its principle of ordering. In this kind of IR theory, the human trafficking problem can be regulated if every country agrees and abides by the theory description.  Generally, the theory describes all the states as equal hence no state should take advantage of the other. However, the theory is affected by some security issues where some states lose trust in others and this may favor conditions that promote the human trafficking.

In reality, neoliberalism has high support on fiscal austerity, free trade areas, and privatization sector and also controls government spending. It's a concept that is widely associated with laissez-faire economics as a doctrine policy that dictates low government interference in the economic issues of political, individuals and the overall society. It has a belief that continued economic growth will lead to human progress, improvement of free markets, emphasis on minimal state interference and improvement of international relations (Burley, 2017).

Realism as dominant theory of international relations claims to rely upon an ancient tradition of thoughts seen by realist as evidence of deficiencies. The popularity and support of this topic are often divided. This approach has been continuously connected to several economic policies introduced in the US and UK by Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan respectively (Brown & Ainley, 2009).  Some argue based on the resurgence of neoliberal economic theories in formal years attributing to financialization. This show that the financial crisis that occurred in 2009 was due to such an approach to the political economy.

Realism and International Relations

 If an individual understands economics well, they will understand politics as well. There have been an undeniable symbiotic relationship between economics and politics. It is very imperative that legislative, political and economic leaders research and understand the effects of international relation theories designing and administering policies based on neoliberalism concept. The modern state system resulted from Westphalia of 1648 in European countries (Burchill et al., 2013). This system constructed nationalism in the process leading to the modern, nation-centric domain of realist based theory. All individuals supporting the realist construct views the human as an individual interested. The realist theory views neoliberalism political economy as a wrangle among the various states that are merely interested in economy power each competing nation struggling to pursue its own state interests. Economic power is viewed as a mode of power achievement and increased dominance over other countries.

Realism theoretical approach and economy are best defined under several structural ways including neo and ethnic colonialism. Colonialism and mercantilism. Each of the various constructs usually exhibits features of free international trade and target market groups (Couldry, 2010. The European powers have unfettered ability to highly exploit these scarce resources in the colonial grounds in order to build wealth and power.

 Mercantilism: This is nation driven and enablers the growth and development of industrial markets by subsidizing them and preventing them from foreign competition and rivalry. Mercantilist thus focuses mainly on the zero rivalries and are more concerned with the gains or benefits got from the trade exchange. In this case, the concept of neoliberalism as free trade is influenced. For individuals who are basically mercantilist, utilization of free trade is highly acceptable in order to succeed in economic power (Duggan, 2012).

Post colonialism involves the attainment of power by multi-state corporations and intergovernmental profit agencies. Post-colonialist rivals perceive the organizations to utilize their international markets positions to force nations to implement domestic policies that do not favor indigenous people. This, therefore, does not serve to the best interests of neoliberalism economic approach.

 Several writers such as Chua in her book "A world on Fire" point to the increment of a market-dominant minority groups making the indigenous people who are the majority to suffer. Markets massively concentrate spectacular wealth on the side of the minority who dominate the market (Giroux, 2015). This phenomenon assumes a realist view by excluding indigenous individuals for example apartheid forms in South Africa. These implicit segregation actions enable market domination lowering the strength of economic neoliberalism.

Liberalism and International Relations

The theory of liberalism is quite a distinct kind differing from realism in such a sense that it leads to the lowering of state value regarding the political and economic interrelations. These high depend on various structural features within the rapidly rising global domain framework. Liberalism involves typical enlighten of people to give them more knowledge and focuses on human achievement and progress so as to improve the ideal world. It also contributes significantly to the growth of economic integration and globalization. Liberalist individuals are strong believers in trading, commerce, and the neoliberal economy as the main channels that lead to the more prosperous environment. This optimal underlying framework of liberal theory is intertwined with a democratic political culture and structure. Some democratic principles, for example, the right to own property promotes free trade and capital markets, especially in the United States. Therefore, it is the theory which identifies the expected results of both globalization and neoliberal economic principles.

It can be described that most of those who are involved in this trade of trafficking want to explore their economic status forgetting that the trade also has a repercussion to their future. In my argument in order to completely end such animosity rules should be designed and implemented across all the borders. Those international rules may also provide sanction to those countries which goes against the international relations organizations.

 In order to understand how human trafficking has affected the international relation, several schools of thought that relate to international relation regarding human trafficking are derived. The research also gives both positive and negative effects generated by these international relation theories and also tries to bring measures that needed to be implemented for achievement of peaceful relation where every human right is respected.

To try to understand how trafficking affects mostly women and children, feminism theory is used to describe the reasons where women are mostly affected and also implement. Also, labor has been a major reason why many involve themselves in human trafficking. I will prove how beneficial it is, in relying on skilled and fairly labor provision rather than trafficking human for labor. Several international relation theories/school of thought theories are discussed by relating them with the human trafficking trade in trying to alert on the need of good and healthy relationship between different states. The theories are also trying to bring understanding to all the states on the purpose of treating each other as equal in political, social and economic understanding.

Many products, for example, this MacBook that I am using should come together due to an array of worldwide suppliers who take them to people with a vision of prosperity and neoliberalism ideas. Globalization supporter Friedman Thomas's book, "The World is flat. A summary History in the 21st century" depicts that two states who are members of the supply chain should not fight against each other (Dunne et al. 2013). Supporters think that this interdependence has increased growth rates of approximately 8-10 percent for example in Australia and China over the past 20 years.

 Precisely, as of 2011, the 9 largest global corporations generated an estimated revenue of $2.7 trillion hires approximately 7.0 million employees. Wal Mart employed approximately 2.o million workers. Marxists theorist that MNCs behave as neo-colonial seeking to exploits countries in the south of the globe by utilizing resources and unskilled labor. I would use these benefits and policies to create awareness and show the benefits of working together in order to realize the neoliberalism dream.

Marxists critique dictates that capitalism would fail for economic reasons as it sows the seed of its own destruction. There exist three rules that form the Marxist economic laws. First, the law of disproportionality states that in hot pursuit of capital benefits, economies overproduce thus Marx tends to argue that it leads to unequal production and economic fluctuations (Hill & Kumar, 2012). Marxist supporters can use the current global economic crisis to support this view. Secondly, there has concentration among the wealthy capital class. Some companies tend to call for lay off millions of workers in order to preserve capital and profits. Thirdly as capital accumulates the rate of return lowers affecting the neoliberal economy.

According to the Chicago school, it's strongly associated with economists such as George Stigler and Ronal Coase. In the 21st century, economists Friedrich Hayek influenced this school (Mirowski 2013). The school basically emphasizes non-intervention from state government office prevents regulation in markets as ineffective. Even though Chicago school association with neoliberalism is in some instances resisted by its proponents, its continued emphasis on decreased government intervention in the economy and laissez-faire ideology has contributed to an affiliation between the school and neoliberal economics.

 Liberalism school of thought. These terms share some similar features but are also distinct. Both date back in the nineteenth-century classical liberalism which strongly supported laissez-fare economics and contributed immensely to the freedom of people against the overpowering form of government. (Guzzini, 2013). Liberalism is thus more a political philosophical approach that upholds liberty to a higher standard. It depicts all social economic and political issues of a community including the role and responsibilities of government, tolerating each other and law of freedom to act. Conversely, neoliberalism puts more emphasis on the markets, meaning that it supports deregulation strategies, preventing protectionism and also freeing up free markets. Therefore, it is quite evident that is based on typical economics.

Conclusion

Human trafficking is a crime which has led to negative impacts on social, economic and political background need to enjoy. The victims of this illegal activity are exposed to the harsh condition in profit for a small group of people (Brusca 2011). It requires all the states to come together and discuss the possible actions in curbing this problem.

This crime has also facilitated easy attacks made by terrorists. Some terrorist has been using this method to transport their member in order to make them crime partners. This shows the big need for every country to avoid such trade from happening as later it may cost them.

Generally, neoliberalism has had a lot of criticism from all sides of the political spectrum. By proper assessment of the overall growth and performance of a public system-transit as being economically effective, it may make rights of an employee to be considered as a high-hindrance to performance and success. Critics say that the rise of neoliberalism has resulted in the increment of an anti-corporatist movement which depicts that the influence of corporations is against the betterment of the entire society and democratic rights (Lipman, 2013).

 There also exists political opposition and criticism of neoliberalism. Initially, the concept of globalization is viewed as a negative concept since it can deter sovereign states of their own right to self-determination (Baylis 2017). Critics say that the replacement of government-owned corporations with private corporations can decrease efficacy and performance. They also say that neoliberalism can lead to high productivity levels as it may not sustain all regions due to internationally limited geographical free space. Moreover, those individuals who are opposed to neoliberalism add that is anti-democratic and that it can result in more exploitation and injustice. Critics also argue that it can criminalize poverty.

The theories that have been vastly discussed above are very important as they usually provide significant insight when explaining the neoliberalism in the economic approach and the decision making the process of administration policymakers. Evidently, we are in no doubtful situation, that in the era of neoliberal policymaking, political leaders from the high financial global North region have, over several years designed an environment that revolves around neoliberalism and economy (Mirowski, 2013). The modern framework, despite its close relative achievement, has a weakness as depicted by advocates like Marxist theorists. However, it is often a debatable issue on whether these existing weaknesses result from technique hitches, the inherent human flaw or if the unknowledgeable person constructs or structural imperfections. The world economy leaders should play a huge role to decipher the information embedded within each of those international relation theories in order to proceed and achieve accordingly.

References

Alvarez, M. B., & Alessi, E. J. (2012). Human trafficking is more than sex trafficking and prostitution: Implications for social work. Affilia,27(2), 142-152.

Bales, K., & Soodalter, R. (2010). The slave next door: Human trafficking and slavery in America today. Univ of California Press.

Baylis, J., Smith, S., & Owens, P. (Eds.). (2017). The globalization of world politics: an introduction to international relations. Oxford University Press.

Boas, T. C., & Gans-Morse, J. (2009). Neoliberalism: From the new liberal philosophy to the anti-liberal slogan. Studies in comparative international development, 44(2), 137-161.

Bond, P., Garcia, A., & Garcia, A. (2014). Elite Transition-Revised and Expanded Edition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa. Pluto Press

Brown, C., & Ainley, K. (2009). Understanding international relations. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Burchill, S., Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Donnelly, J., Nardin, T., Paterson, M., ... & True, J. (2013). Theories of international relations. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Brusca, C. S. (2011). Palermo Protocol: The First Ten Years after Adoption. Global Security Studies, 2(3).

Burley, A. M. S. (2017). International law and international relations theory: a dual agenda. In The Nature of International Law (pp. 11-46). Routledge.

Davidson, J. O. C. (2010). New slavery, old binaries: human trafficking and the borders of ‘freedom'. Global networks,10(2), 244-261

Di Nicola, A. (2013). 3 Researching into human trafficking: Issues and problems. Human trafficking (pp. 61-84). Willan.

Duggan, L. (2012). The twilight of equality?: Neoliberalism, cultural politics, and the attack on democracy. Beacon Press.

Duménil, G., & Lévy, D. (2011). The crisis of neoliberalism. Harvard University Press.

Dunne, T., Kurki, M., & Smith, S. (Eds.). (2013). International relations theories. Oxford University Press.

Ferguson, J. (2010). The uses of neoliberalism. Antipode, 41, 166-184.

Giroux, H. A. (2015). Against the terror of neoliberalism: Politics beyond the age of greed. Routledge.

Guzzini, S. (2013). Realism in International Relations and International Political Economy: the continuing story of a death foretold. Routledge.

Hill, D., & Kumar, R. (Eds.). (2012). Global neoliberalism and education and its consequences. Routledge.

Kempadoo, K., Sanghera, J., & Pattanaik, B. (2015). Trafficking and prostitution reconsidered: New perspectives on migration, sex work, and human rights. Routledge.

Lee, M. (2013). 1 Introduction: Understanding human trafficking. Human trafficking (pp. 13-37). Willan.

Lipman, P. (2013). The new political economy of urban education: Neoliberalism, race, and the right to the city. Taylor & Francis.

Mirowski, P. (2013). Never let a serious crisis go to waste: How Neoliberalism survived the financial meltdown. Verso Books.

Shelley, L. (2010). Human trafficking: A global perspective. Cambridge University Press.

Shelley, L. (2013). 6 Human trafficking as a form of transnational crime. Human trafficking (pp. 128-149). Willan.

Dunne, T., Kurki, M., & Smith, S. (Eds.). (2013). International relations theories. Oxford University Press.

Giroux, H. A. (2015). Against the terror of Neoliberalism: Politics beyond the age of greed. Routledge.

Guzzini, S. (2013). Realism in International Relations and International Political Economy: the continuing story of a death foretold. Routledge.

Hill, D., & Kumar, R. (Eds.). (2012). Global Neoliberalism and education and its consequences. Routledge.

Hoyle, C., Bosworth, M., & Dempsey, M. (2011). Labeling the victims of sex trafficking: Exploring the borderland between rhetoric and reality. Social & Legal Studies, 20(3), 313-329.

Hodge, D. R. (2014). Assisting victims of human trafficking: Strategies to facilitate identification, exit from trafficking, and the restoration of wellness. Social work, 59(2), 111-118.

Rao, S., & Presenti, C. (2012). Understanding human trafficking origin: A cross-country empirical analysis. Feminist Economics, 18(2), 231-263.