Gas Exchange System In Humans And DNA Replication

1. Examine the structure and function of the component parts of the gas exchange system in humans.
2. Describe the process of DNA replication.
3. What is genetic diversity and how does it arise?
4. Examine the classification system used by biologist.
5. Analyse what photosynthesis is and describe the factors which can affect it.
6. Describe two nutrient cycles and analyse their importance to life.
7. Describe the role and operation of the receptors in the human eye.
8. Identify and examine the three types of muscles in the body. 

Gas Exchange System in Humans

1. Gas exchange system in humans is related with respiratory system also. It can be stated that Gas exchange is associated with the delivery of the oxygen from the lungs into the bloodstream and then it reduces the carbon dioxide from the blood stream into the lungs. It takes place in the lungs and also it is connected with the tiny blood vessels and alveoli. The small blood vessels are also known as capillaries which are present in the alveoli walls. One of the primary organs of the respiratory system are the lungs which help to take in the oxygen and expel out the carbon dioxide.  It can be stated that gas exchange process in the human body can only take place with the help of respiratory system. Respiratory system is considered as one of the important part in human body that enables us to breathe. It can be stated that it is the act of breathing, which consist of inhaling and exhaling air in and out of the body and it also focuses on absorbing the oxygen from the air so that energy can be produced and also carbon dioxide is discharged in this entire process of breathing (Sherwood, 2015). 

The structure of the gas exchange can be elaborated through the given picture

                                                                 

                                                                               (Source: Bodytomy, 2018).

Gas exchange can take place according to the given structure. Within the lungs the bronchioles are divided into the small tubes which are then attached to the alveoli.  Alveoli are considered as the small sac like structure through which the gas is exchanged with the blood. The structures which are related with the gas exchange that take place in respiratory system are related with carbon dioxide.  It can be seen that carbon dioxide is transmitted through the blood capillaries and then it is divided through the bronchi and through upper respiratory tract. The inner surface of the lungs also exchange the gases which take place in huge amount and also because of the structure of air sacs of Alveoli.  The process of gas exchange takes place between the capillaries and also Alveolar spaces.  The function of the respiratory system is related with exchanging the two gases which are oxygen and carbon dioxide.  The gas exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs and capillaries. The air also moves in and out of the lungs and this process is called as ventilation (Hogan et al., 2014).

Structure of the Gas Exchange System

The alveoli offer a massive surface area which can help to diffuse the gases. The gases also diffuse the short distance between the alveolus and also blood just due to the reason of the lining of the lungs and also capillary. Also the blood supply is extensive which states that oxygen is carried out from the cells and it is diffused into the blood. Then the movement related to ventilation is also maintained so that it can be easy for the air to move in and out.

There are various components which are involved in the overall process of gas exchange system.  One of the components is related with upper respiratory tract, in which, it is composed of the nose, pharynx and larynx. The organs are also situated outside the chest cavity. In the nasal cavity is there. The function of the nasal cavity is to stop the dust particles with the help of tiny hairs. Also, sinuses are the component through which the air is filled with the spaces which have the function to make the skull lighter.  Pharynx focuses on both food and air to come before reaching at the particular destination and also it has the role in speech.  Larynx is also one of the components and the basic function is related with the human speech.

In the lower respiratory tract, there are trachea, lungs and also the parts of the bronchial tree. It is the organ related with the lower respiratory tract which is situated inside the chest cavity.  In this there are various components with different functions. Trachea is one of the components which are present below the larynx and the main function is related with passing the air to the lungs. Lungs are also one of the largest forms of the body organs. It offers oxygen to capillaries and exhales the carbon dioxide.  Bronchi are also one of the component, which is the branch of trachea and it make the network of the intricate passages that supply the air through lungs. The last component is related with Diaphragm which is the muscle of the respiratory system that contracts and also helps to allow the air into the lungs (Broussard, Hall & Levitzky, 2014).

Therefore, this is the structure and function of the component parts of the gas exchange system in the humans.

2. DNA is a genetic information carrier which is present in each and every living organism. It is a self-replicating material which is the main constituent of chromosomes. Replication of DNA is biological process in which a DNA produces its two identical replicas from one original DNA molecule.  DNA replication is done in three main steps: initiation, elongation and termination.

Function of the Gas Exchange System

Each DNA consists of two contemporary strands which are needed to be separated for carrying out the replication process. These double stranded DNA are unwind to carry out the replication process and these proteins are called the initiator proteins by the proteins for dividing the cell, it is first important to replicate the DNA. Replication process is initiated at a particular point in the DNA which is known as origin, and initiator protein targets this origin to start the replication process (Yeeles, Deegan, Janska, Early & Diffley, 2015).

The next step for DNA replication after initiation is elongation. 3 hyroxyl groups are required for the DNA replication process so that synthesis can be initiated, to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3′ OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase, Primase is used by All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids. After separation of two contemporary strands of DNA, primase provide RNA to these strands, leading strand receives one RNA premier and the other which are legging receives several. The DNA polymerase continuously extends the leading strand from the primer with high processivity. Hydrogen bond which were holding the two strands together are broken by the helicases. These helicases form the replication fork within the nucleus during DNA replication (Ohashi & Tsurimoto, 2017).

In termination process DNA replication process is initiated at multiple points in chromosomes, and replication forks meet and terminate at these points. Eukaryotes consist of a linear chromosome and this is why DNA replication process does not reach the end of the chromosome, and this causes the loss of DNA at the end of chromosome at each replication cycle. These regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends are called Telomers and these telomers helps in preventing the loss of genes (Fragkos, Ganier, Coulombe & Méchali, 2015).

When the two replication forks meet each other at the opposite end of the parental chromosome, Termination of replication occurs. E. coil helps to bind the replication forks to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome by regulating the process by the use of termination sequence which allows the replication fork to pass through only one direction (Stodola & Burgers, 2017).

3. Genetic diversity can be determined as the different genetic characteristics amongst the same species. Genetic differences that can be seen amongst the same species are what we call as genetic diversity. For example, let us consider human beings, we can say all human being have common features like one nose, two ears, two eyes and so on, but no one has the same looking faces. There can be some similarity, but is very rare to have exactly the same face. People are different to each other in many ways whether the focus is given on the color, tastes or any cause but the species are same. Similarly, we can take example of dogs, Dogs is a species with various types of breeds. This can be called as genetic diversity. Every different species possesses a particular gene, and these genes have its own unique features. And this unique feature differs from one person to other person. Difference in the characteristics of the same species is what we call as genetic diversity (Braun, Moore, Candy & Bailey, 2016).

Components of the Gas Exchange System

Some people can tolerate pollution while other can have bad effect of it on his or her health, Some person can have a good control over his or her anger while other is vastly short tempered, some person might be dark in color while the other one might have fare color, so all these are the examples of genetic diversity, or it can be related with the examples of different genetic behavior of same species.

There can be many factors which are the reasons for genetic diversity, and some of these processes are mutation, random mating between organisms, random fertilization and crossing over between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. Mutation can be defined as the permanent alteration in the DNA, which is responsible for making genes. This variation in the DNA is main reason for the change in characteristics of the same species. Genes are transferred during the process of reproduction and DNA is the main constituents of genes. Variation in the DNA causes the variation in the genes and hence causes variation in the characteristics of the species as well. Genetic diversity can be caused due to some other factors as well, for example Environment is also an important factor that affects the genetic diversity. Change in environment will cause the change in living techniques of living beings. Every living being try and adapt to the changing environment and try adjusting itself according to the environment. This adaption of living is different from the previous one and this causes the genetic change to occur within the upcoming species (Kettenring, Mercer, Adams & Hines, 2014).

Random mating and random fertilization also act as a factor for genetic diversity. Mating of two different species may be responsible for genetic diversity. This is because the genes of two different species gets mixed up and this causes a lot of change in the genetic behavior or characteristics. Random matting and random fertilization cause the reshuffling of alleles, resulting in the combination which is totally different from the parents and others in the population (Lamy, Laroche, David, Massol & Jarne, 2017).

4. Classification system refers to the classification of the different biological organisms according to their characteristics, shape and other different factors. This arrangement of organisms according to their biological behavior is known as taxonomy. Taxonomy is a branch of science which deals with the science of defining and naming the biological organisms on the basis of their characteristics. We people always give name to everything which we see according to their behavior and characteristics so that it becomes easier for the people to classify and differentiate between things. Similarly, there is a need of classification system in biology so as to classify different organism according to their behavior and characteristics (Lew, 2018). 

DNA Replication

Carl Linnaeus was the first person to develop such a system for classifying different organisms according to the behavior and biological characteristics. Carl Linnaeus developed this system in 18^th century and was regarded as the father of taxonomy. The system of classification of biological organisms that he developed was known as Linnaeus taxonomy. Linnaeus used the hierarchal naming structure for classifying the organisms which provides the information about the species which that organism is related to and also determines the closest relative of that organism (Palsson & Palsson, 2015). 

The classification systems used by the biologist to classify the different living organisms are many. This classification system works in a system which includes defining kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and then species.

In kingdom it is defined whether the organism is an animal, plant, fungi, protists or monera. After defining the kingdom organisms are categorized according to the phylum which includes, chordata (animals with backbone), arthropoda (insects), Mollusca (snails). After phylum next order of classification is according to class. In class it is defined whether the organism is a mammal, reptile or a creature like fish which is called as Osteichthyes.

Next order of classification after defining the class of the organism is order. Order is the subdivision of the class. Example of order are cetacea (Whales and dolphins), carnivore (carnivores), primates (monkey, apes and humans) and chiropetra (bats).Family is the next level of classification after defining the order which includes, Hominidae (great apes and humans), cercopithecidae (baboons), and hylobatidae (gibbons and lesser apes).

And the last level of the system includes defining the genus and the species. The most amazing feature of this system is that defining two names is enough to determine the organism or differentiate it from another one (Kendrick, 2017). 

5. Photosynthesis is known as the process through which plants, bacteria and protistans consume the energy from the sunlight so that glucose can be produced from carbon dioxide and water. The glucose which is produced then converted into the pyruvate which also emphasizes on releasing the adenosine triphosphate and also oxygen is generated (Blankenship, 2014). 

Therefore, in simple words it can be stated that Photosynthesis is the process which is exhibited by the plants and organisms to change the light energy into the chemical energy and also on the later stage it can be analyzed that it can be released to fuel the overall operations of organisms.  It can be stated that at the time of photosynthesis in green plants, the light energy is also captured which is then converted in water, carbon dioxide and minerals into the compounds which are energy rich organics.  In the process of photosynthesis, there are four stages that take place. The first stage is related with absorption of light, the second is related with electron transport leading to the decrease in NADP+ to NADP. The third is related to creating the ATP and also the last stage emphasizes on the conversion of CO2 into the carbohydrates (Chenu & Scholes, 2015).

Process of DNA Replication

There are various factors which affect photosynthesis. One the factor is related to temperature.  It is analyzed that when there is no limit in the light of CO2 and other factors then the overall rate of photosynthesis enhances with the increase in the temperature. The temperature enhances over the range from 6 degree Celsius to 77 degree Celsius.  Also, above the overall temperature there is decrease in the overall rate and the tissue decreases at 43 degree Celsius. It can be stated that high temperature can be observed due to the inactivation of the enzymes which impact the enzymatically controlled the overall reaction of photosynthesis (Singh & Singh, 2015). Therefore, this is one of the major factors which affect the overall process of photosynthesis.

The next factor is related to Water. Water is known as one of the essential factors affecting photosynthesis and also it is an important raw material in carbon assimilation. At the time of transpiration, the stomata close so to avoid the loss of water when there is less water intake.  When the stomata close the CO2 intake also stops which impact photosynthesis. So, the impact of water on photosynthesis is indirect and it affects the overall process of photosynthesis.  Therefore, these two are the major factors which affect photosynthesis (Esteban, Barrutia, Artetxe, Fernández?Marín, Hernández & García?Plazaola, 2015).

6. Nutrient cycles are related with the movement of the organic and inorganic matter which converts into the overall production of the living matter. There are many nutrient cycles but the two nutrient cycles are water cycle and oxygen cycle.

Water cycle is one of the important components of the life. It can be seen that almost 70% of plants and animals are composed of water. So, the overall process of water cycling is known as water cycle. Water cycle is important as it helps in determining the weather and also makes the life easy to survive. In the overall process of water cycle, first is related with evaporation in which the water evaporates from lakes and rivers. The next is transpiration which is considered as the water loss from the plants (Finzi et al., 2015).

The next is evapotranspiration which is linked with evaporation and transpiration. Condensation is the method through which water vapor is changed into liquid. Precipitation is also the step through which water comes back to earth in the form of rain. Then infiltration is the method in which the water is soaked into the ground and it is also determined by the soil.  The last step is melting and freezing in which the water freezes as the ice and it melts in the sea. Water cycle has an important part in the life. It helps the living organisms to survive as they require it to live on the planet (Williamson et al., 2016).

Genetic Diversity

                                 

                                                                              (Source: Robbins, 2018).

The second nutrient cycle is related with oxygen cycle in which it can be stated that oxygen is considered as one of the important gases which is present in Air with nitrogen. Oxygen is also recycled between the air and living organisms in many ways. The ways can be related to breathing and respiration. It is analyzed that in this organisms like plants and animals, intake of the oxygen is considered for cellular respiration so that energy can be released from organic nutrients like glucose.  The next is photosynthesis in which the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air is done by the plants to synthesize the oxygen which is released. Then there is also the complementary connection between photosynthesis and the cellular respiration in which the oxygen is first producer then later it is consumed (Casciotti, 2016).

It is evaluated that oxygen cycle is important for the life on earth.  Living organisms need oxygen to survive and without it is not possible to survive for long time. Therefore, it is important for the life of living organisms. Also, oxygen cycle helps in maintaining the different chemicals present in the atmosphere.

7. Human eye is a sense organ which reacts to pressure and the light falling on it. It allows humans, a vision through which objects can be seen in three dimension, colored and moving. A human eye anatomy is a complex structure having various parts functioning simultaneously which assists in a clear vision. Some of these important parts are retina, iris, pupil, Cornea, optic nerve, receptors etc.

Receptors or Photoreceptors are neuroepithelial cells present in retina of a human eye which responds to light. The primary role of the receptors is to convert the light into signals that helps in stimulating the biological processes. They are basically like a sensitive element that has the capability of absorbing the light and initiating the electrophysiological process which sends the visuals signals directly to the human brain. The feature that distinguishes the receptors is the presence of tightly packed membranes which has photo pigment rhodopsin. This tight packaging allows a large amount of photons to reach the photoreceptors (Powner, McKenzie, Christianson, Roopenian & Fruttiger, 2014).

There are two types of receptors present in the human eye which are rods and cones. The cones are responsible for the colored vision and it relatively requires a high intensity of light so that it can be stimulated and thus only function in bright. Whereas rods cannot distinguish color and functions in dim light as they are more sensitive to light. Rods enable us to seen in black and white during night time. These rods and cones are arranged in such a way which facilitate us in getting a proper vision in day and night time. So, whenever a ray of light enters the eye, it happens to hit a rod and the rhodopsins, which are basically proteins that absorb lights, initiates photo transduction. This fires an action potential that directly reaches to our human brain.  This exact process takes place in cones as well.

Factors Contributing to Genetic Diversity

The proteins in rods are called rhodopsin and in cones it is called photopsin. The rods and eyes are present at the back of an eye and absorb the light moving in through the eye. Cones are able to detect multiple ranges of colors although they are sensitive to a particular color. There are three types of cones which are labeled by the name of the color to which they are sensitive to i.e. red, blue and green, but due to the overlap of the cones and the integration of the signals by the brain helps in seeing various other types of color. Like, the yellow color is visible due to the fact that the red and green cones are stimulated whereas there is no stimulation in blue cone (Kocaoglu, Liu, Zhang, Kurokawa, Jonnal & Miller, 2016).

                                      

                                                                                 (Source: Keller, 2018).

8. Muscles are bundled fibrous tissues in a body having the property of contraction, helping in movement production and also aids in maintaining the perfect position of various parts of the body. Muscles are a soft tissue present in both animals and human beings. Around 50 percent of the body’s weight comprises of muscle. The protein filaments present in the muscle cells helps in producing contraction resulting in variation in the shape and the length of the cell. The primary functionality of muscle is in maintaining the posture and the motion of internal organs. For example, heart contraction and food movement through the digestive system.

In the muscular system, there are three distinct types of muscle tissues which are categorized as skeletal, smooth and cardiac. Each tissue is having its own functionality and unique structure and is there to perform a specific role in the body. The detailed analysis of the structure and the function of the tissues are discussed below.

• Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscles are responsible for the movement of bones and other different structures. There are around 600 skeletal muscles in a human body moving continuously. The skeletal muscles responds to the voluntary signals received from the nervous system and results in the contraction and relaxation of the bones. The tissue of skeletal muscle is composed of muscle fibers which are basically long cells having a striated appearance. These muscle fibers are arranged in the form of bundles and are also referred to as multiple bundles and motor neurons are innervated in it (Frontera & Ochala, 2015).
• Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscles are responsible for the contraction of heart so that they can pump blood. The cardiac conduction system sends a signal in response to which the contraction of the cardiac muscle takes place. The wall of the heart is composed of three layers. The myocardium, which is the middle layer, and is responsible for the pumping action of the heart. The heartbeat action takes place when it responds to the signals received form the cardiac conduction system. Cardiocytes are the cells out of which the cardiac muscles are made up of. Similar to the skeletal muscles cells, the striated appearance can also be seen in cardiocytes but comparing the overall structure, the latter is much thicker and shorter than the former one. The branched structure of the cardiocytes allows them to easily connect with various other cardiocytes and thus forming a network. This network helps in coordinated contraction (Herman, 2016).
• Smooth Muscles: Organs like bladder and stomach are formed using smooth muscle tissue. It helps in facilitating bodily functions by changing the shape. These muscles are found in the walls of the organs which are hollow in nature. The contractions of the smooth muscles are involuntary movements which are triggered by the help of the impulses that travel from Automatic nervous system to the smooth muscle. The cells within this muscle tissue are arranged in such a way that facilitates elasticity and allows the relaxation and the contraction. In organs like the uterus and the urinary bladder, smooth muscle allows the easy expansion and relaxation. Also, smooth muscles in eyes help to bring object into focus of the human eye by changing the lens shape (Obara, Kobayashi, Chino & Tanaka, 2017).

                                            

                                                                              (Source: Muscle diagram, 2018).

9. Endotherms are the organisms which can maintain its body temperature at a favorable level. They are capable of and dependent on internal heat generation. Primary examples of endotherms are mammals and birds but there are some fish that are also capable of internal heat generation making them endothermic. Endotherms have the capability of surviving at much lower external temperatures an can still be active, but in order to maintain the temperature they have to generate heat continuously which can only done when there is intake of high quantity of food.

In order to regulate the body temperature, there are several methods taken into practice by endotherms in order to keep the temperature to a moderate level.  These methods may include behavioral strategies, thermogenesis process, circulatory mechanisms, countercurrent heat exchange, insulation etc.

Endotherms exhibits and go through several behavioral changes. For example, pigs like to soak up in the mud pool on a hot day while humans like to sit by the fire to get warm during a cold night. Similarly, elephants like to cool themselves by throwing water all over their body with the help of their trunks. These are some behavioral attributes which are used by different organisms. Endotherms can create own heat through metabolism.  Also through thermogenesis, metabolic heat can be produced with the help of muscle contraction. Like in case of shivering, people tend to rub their hands together or prefer taking a brisk walk. Shivering causes muscle activity which tends to generate heat in the body (Spencer, Schein, Stewart, Seaton & Worcester, 2016).

The circulatory mechanism explains what exactly goes on inside the body that helps in regulating the heat. The main site from where the heat exchange takes place with the environment is the surface of the body. Endotherms control the blood flow to regulate the heat loss or gain. In endotherms, the warm nature of blood loses its heat to the environment from the core of the body while it passes through the skin. This results in the shrinkage of the blood vessels diameter resulting in the reduction of blood flow and retaining the heat. This process is known as vasoconstriction.  On the other hand, when there is a need to get rid of the heat, the diameter of the blood vessels gets larger. This process is called vasodilation as during this process, the blood vessels dilate, increasing the flow of blood to the skin which helps the organism to get rid of the extra heat. For example, furry animals such as jackrabbits have a network of blood vessels present in its ears that allows rapid heat loss (Gillooly, Gomez, Mavrodiev, Rong & McLamore, 2016).

Another way of heat regulation is through countercurrent heat exchange which is found in many birds. This process allows the heat transfer between blood vessels containing warmer blood and cooler blood. Insulation is also a process by which birds can reduce the transfer of heat to the environment by trapping a thin layer of air besides the skin which help them staying warm even in intense freezing temperatures.

References

Blankenship, R. E. (2014). Molecular mechanisms of photosynthesis. John Wiley & Sons.

Bodytomy. (2018).The human respiratory system. Retrieved from: https://bodytomy.com/respiratory-system-functions.

Braun, D. C., Moore, J. W., Candy, J., & Bailey, R. E. (2016). Population diversity in salmon: linkages among response, genetic and life history diversity. Ecography, 39(3), 317-328.

Broussard, A. J., Hall, S. M., & Levitzky, M. G. (2014). Respiratory system: anatomy and physiology. Essentials of Pediatric Anesthesiology, 38(5), 38-42.

Casciotti, K. L. (2016). Nitrogen and oxygen isotopic studies of the marine nitrogen cycle. Annual review of marine science, 8(9), 379-407.

Chenu, A., & Scholes, G. D. (2015). Coherence in energy transfer and photosynthesis. Annual review of physical chemistry, 66(8), 69-96.

Esteban, R., Barrutia, O., Artetxe, U., Fernández?Marín, B., Hernández, A., & García?Plazaola, J. I. (2015). Internal and external factors affecting photosynthetic pigment composition in plants: a meta?analytical approach. New Phytologist, 206(1), 268-280.

Finzi, A. C., Abramoff, R. Z., Spiller, K. S., Brzostek, E. R., Darby, B. A., Kramer, M. A., & Phillips, R. P. (2015). Rhizosphere processes are quantitatively important components of terrestrial carbon and nutrient cycles. Global Change Biology, 21(5), 2082-2094.

Fragkos, M., Ganier, O., Coulombe, P., & Méchali, M. (2015). DNA replication origin activation in space and time. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 16(6), 360.

Frontera, W. R., & Ochala, J. (2015). Skeletal muscle: a brief review of structure and function. Calcified tissue international, 96(3), 183-195.

Gillooly, J. F., Gomez, J. P., Mavrodiev, E. V., Rong, Y., & McLamore, E. S. (2016). Body mass scaling of passive oxygen diffusion in endotherms and ectotherms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(19), 534-545.

Herman, I. P. (2016). Physics of the human body. Springer.

Hogan, B. L., Barkauskas, C. E., Chapman, H. A., Epstein, J. A., Jain, R., Hsia, C. C., ... & Rock, J. (2014). Repair and regeneration of the respiratory system: complexity, plasticity, and mechanisms of lung stem cell function. Cell stem cell, 15(2), 123-138.

Keller, H. (2018). Eye Yie Eye?. Retrieved from: https://everydaypsych.com/eye-yie-eye/

Kendrick, B. (2017). The fifth kingdom. Hackett Publishing.

Kettenring, K. M., Mercer, K. L., Adams, C. R., & Hines, J. (2014). EDITOR'S CHOICE: Application of genetic diversity–ecosystem function research to ecological restoration. Journal of applied ecology, 51(2), 339-348.

Kocaoglu, O. P., Liu, Z., Zhang, F., Kurokawa, K., Jonnal, R. S., & Miller, D. T. (2016). Photoreceptor disc shedding in the living human eye. Biomedical optics express, 7(11), 4554-4568.

Lamy, T., Laroche, F., David, P., Massol, F., & Jarne, P. (2017). The contribution of species–genetic diversity correlations to the understanding of community assembly rules. Oikos, 126(6), 759-771.

Lew, K. (2018). Taxonomy: The Classification of Biological Organisms. Enslow Publishing, LLC.

Muscle diagram. (2018). Kinds Of Muscle Tissues Muscle Types In The Human Body 8.4.1 Three Types Of Muscle Tissue. Retrieved from: https://anatomymedicalook.com/kinds-of-muscle-tissues/kinds-of-muscle-tissues-muscle-types-in-the-human-body-8-4-1-three-types-of-muscle-tissue/.

Obara, K., Kobayashi, Y., Chino, D., & Tanaka, Y. (2017). Effects of distigmine on electrical field stimulation-induced contraction of mouse urinary bladder smooth muscles. Pharmacology, 99(3-4), 106-113.

Ohashi, E., & Tsurimoto, T. (2017). Functions of Multiple Clamp and Clamp-Loader Complexes in Eukaryotic DNA Replication. In DNA Replication (pp. 135-162). Springer, Singapore.

Palsson, B., & Palsson, B. Ø. (2015). Systems biology. Cambridge university press.

Powner, M. B., McKenzie, J. A., Christianson, G. J., Roopenian, D. C., & Fruttiger, M. (2014). Expression of neonatal Fc receptor in the eye. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 55(3), 1607-1615.

Robbins, C. (2018). What is the water cycle and can the cycle be disrupted?. Retrieved from: https://www.iweathernet.com/educational/what-is-the-water-cycle

Sherwood, L. (2015). Human physiology: from cells to systems. Cengage learning.

Singh, S. P., & Singh, P. (2015). Effect of temperature and light on the growth of algae species: a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50(6), 431-444.

Spencer, C., Schein, M., Stewart, K., Seaton, E., & Worcester, L. (2016). The Metabolic Rate of Endotherms in Relation to Cold Temperatures. Journal of Introductory Biology Investigations, 4(1),87-89.

Stodola, J. L., & Burgers, P. M. (2017). Mechanism of lagging-strand DNA replication in eukaryotes. In DNA Replication (pp. 117-133). Springer, Singapore.

Williamson, T. J., Cross, W. F., Benstead, J. P., Gíslason, G. M., Hood, J. M., Huryn, A. D., ... & Welter, J. R. (2016). Warming alters coupled carbon and nutrient cycles in experimental streams. Global change biology, 22(6), 2152-2164.

Yeeles, J. T., Deegan, T. D., Janska, A., Early, A., & Diffley, J. F. (2015). Regulated eukaryotic DNA replication origin firing with purified proteins. Nature, 519(75), 431.