Question 1
Fill in the blank boxes to complete TWO rows of your choice in the following table, which summarises the name, location and function of a variety of cells throughout the body. The first line is completed as an example of the level of detail required.
Cell name |
Where would you usually expect to |
What is its job? (or primary role) |
find this cell type? (be specific) |
||
Parietal cell |
Gastric glands in the stomach. |
Secrete intrinsic factor and HCl |
Production of melanin to protect |
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underlying tissue from harmful UV |
||
radiation. |
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Spontaneously depolarise to trigger |
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contraction of cardiac muscle. |
||
Establishes the heart rate. |
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Osteocyte |
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Contains large quantities of |
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haemoglobin, enabling it to bind and |
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transport respiratory gases. |
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Chief cells |
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1 |
Complete each of these sentences with a word or phrase that best describes the outlined scenario. Write the word or phrase in the blank column.
The pressure driven movement of water and solutes from the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule is best-described
The movement of glucose into cells via glucose transporter proteins is an example
Cells lining the small intestine continue to absorb glucose, even when glucose concentrations are much higher in the cells compared to the intestinal contents. This is because the glucose is entering the cell via the process
When a micelle contacts the intestinal epithelium, the fatty acids move into the cells via
In the thick ascending limb of the nephron loop, Na+ and Cl- are removed from the tubular fluid via.
ADH facilitates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical plasma membranes of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting system. These channel proteins allow water to move out of the tubular fluid via.
The following paragraph refers to muscle contraction. Fill in each of the blanks to complete the paragraph using terms from the list provided. More words than necessary are provided, and terms may be used more
• |
Na+ |
• |
sarcoplasm |
• |
mitochondria |
• |
K+ |
• |
sarcolemma |
• |
Golgi apparatus |
• |
Ca2+ |
• |
sarcoplasmic reticulum |
• |
myofibril |
• |
Mg2+ |
• |
sarcomere |
• |
myosin |
• |
actin |
• |
nucleus |
• |
myofilament |
Which type of immunity is expressed in the following scenarios? Choose between:
- Non-specific (first line defence)
- Specific (antibody-mediated)
- Specific (cell-mediated immunity)
Scenario |
Type of immunity |
Bacterial septicaemia (bacterial contamination in systemic circulation)
The pH of hydrochloric acid in the stomach acts to destroy ingested bacteria
A liver cell mutates and becomes cancerous
A virus multiplies inside the epithelial cells in your throat.
Antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone are both hormones that act to conserve water in the body. Fill in the following table for each of these hormones.
Antidiuretic hormone |
Aldosterone |
Where is this hormone synthesized?
Which gland secretes this hormone?
Facultative or obligatory reabsorption?
Mechanism of action how does it work?
The results of dipstick urinalysis of two urine samples are listed below.
Sample 1 belongs to a 16-year-old male ‘gamer’ who has locked himself in his room all weekend to play computer games (he didn’t really even come out to eat or drink).
Sample 2 belongs to a 22-year-old female triathlete who is careful with her diet, hydration, and almost exercises to excess.
Question 2
For each parameter, fill in the normal values. (Hint: Refer to the Week 10 laboratory activity to get you started).
Parameter |
Normal values |
Sample 1 |
Sample 2 |
Colour |
Dark yellow |
Reddish tinge |
|
Glucose |
- |
- |
|
Bilirubin |
- |
||
Ketones |
++ |
- |
|
Specific gravity |
1.039 |
1.010 |
|
Blood |
- |
++ |
|
pH |
5.5 |
6.0 |
|
Protein |
- |
++ |
|
Nitrite |
- |
- |
|
Leukocytes |
- |
- |
- What personal protective equipment should be worn when handling someone else’s urine? Explain. (1 mark)
Choose ONE of the samples above and answer the following Questions in the space below.
- Compare the normal and sample values. List any abnormalities you observe in the section below. Are they higher or lower than normal?
- Give a situation in which you might expect to see these changes in an otherwise healthy
- What might have been happening in the nephron to cause these abnormal results? Explain your observed abnormalities by linking them with the part of the nephron involved and the process involved (ie filtration, secretion or reabsorption). Ensure that any relationships between the abnormal readings are made clear in your response.
Question 7
Why is injury to the medulla oblongata frequently fatal?
- Indicate which phase of haemostasis is depicted in each of the pictures below.
- Provide a brief description of each phase, using the diagrams to help explain your answer.
Picture |
Name of phase |
Description of phase |
- Write the name of each vessel type pictured in the table below in the corresponding box.
- For TWO of the vessels, complete the row to include:
- the key identifying feature of that vessel type
- the layer in which this key identifying feature is found
- indicate whether the key identifying feature is notable because it is present in large amounts OR present in small amounts OR absent
- how this key identifying feature relates to the function of that vessel. (0.5 marks for a-c and 1 mark for d; total 5 marks)
Picture |
Vessel type? |
(a) Identifying feature? |
(b) Layer of vessel? |
(c) Notable because… |
(d) Relates to vessel function because… |
Complete the table below to outline TWO feedback mechanisms (blood pressure and another of your choice). Your second mechanism must be one that is mediated by a hormone of the hypothalamus-pituitary axis; record both the mechanism and the hormone in the table below.
For both blood pressure and your chosen mechanism, you will need to (a) describe the main role of each feedback mechanism, (b) identify the receptor, control centre and effector and (c) specify whether this is a positive or negative feedback mechanism. Body temperature is provided as an example of the level of detail required. (0.5 marks each – 5 marks total)
Mechanism: |
Body temperature |
Blood pressure |
Mechanism: |
Hormone: |
|||
Role: |
Maintaining body |
||
temperature within |
|||
narrow, optimal limits |
|||
Receptor: |
Thermoreceptor in skin |
||
Control centre: |
Brain (hypothalamus) |
||
Effector: |
Sweat glands and |
||
arterioles near the skin. |
|||
(NB This is one of a |
|||
number of possible |
|||
answers.) |
|||
Positive or |
Negative |
||
negative |
|||
feedback? |
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is recessive sex-linked disorder, which causes muscle degeneration and premature death. A couple is pregnant with a boy and neither have DMD. The father’s family has no history of DMD, but the mother is unsure of her genetic family history as she was adopted. The mother decides to take advantage of some of the new genomic screening tests and learns information about a large number of her genes. She finds that she is a carrier of the DMD affected allele. (3 marks total)
- What is the mother’s genotype? Explain your reasoning.
- What is the father’s genotype? Explain your reasoning.
- What is the likelihood of the male foetus having DMD? Use a punnet square to explain your answer.
Insert the correct term in the summary about digestion using the suggested labels below. Not all terms are suitable and may be used only once.
o |
Acidic |
o |
Cellulose |
o |
Lymphatic vessels |
o |
Neutral |
o |
Starch |
o |
Lipase |
o |
Alkaline |
o |
Dissacharides |
o |
Pepsin |
o |
Amylase |
o |
Monosaccharides |
o |
Peptidase |
o |
Carbonic anhydrase |
o |
Insulin |
o |
Bile salts |
o |
Permease |
o |
Hepatic portal vein |
o |
Bicarbonate |
Describe the changes in volume and pressure inside the chest cavity during a normal exhalation. Explain why these changes are occurring, and the effect upon airflow.
The figure below illustrates inspiration and expiration. Refer to this figure to answer the following Questions.
Question |
Answer |
|
Contraction of which muscle/s produces the |
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movement labelled "1"? |
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Contraction of which muscle/s produces the |
||
movement labelled “2”? |
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At label “3”, is pressure outside greater than or |
||
less than pressure inside the lungs? |
||
Is the pressure in the space labelled "4", higher or |
||
lower compared to the atmospheric pressure? |
||
At label “8”, is pressure outside greater than or |
||
less than pressure inside the lungs? |
||
Name any ONE muscle that contracts to cause the |
||
extra movement required when you need to |
||
expire forcefully (indicated by the arrows labelled |
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"6" and "7"). |
Regarding ventilation, which process is active - inhalation or exhalation? Explain your answer.
A young child presents at the hospital with watery and explosive diarrhoea. Her father explains that they have just arrived home from India. Although the family were careful to consume well-cooked food and bottled water, the toddler was given an icy slushie at Delhi airport. Stool samples were collected and lab cultures were completed. The bacteria, Salmonella typhi was shown to be present. Consider this story in relation to microbiology principles, and complete the circle of infection by identifying the infectious agent, the reservoir, the mode of transmission and the portal of entry. (0.5 marks each - 2 marks total)
Relate tissue structure to function.
- Describe the type of epithelium you would expect to find in each of the locations listed below.
- How does the structure of this epithelium enable it to best perform its function (ie its ‘job’)? The first line is completed as an example.
Location |
Type of epithelium |
Relate structure to function |
Bladder |
Transitional epithelium |
Permits repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling. |
This allows the bladder to cope with large changes |
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in volume (ie stretch as it fills with urine, and recoil |
||
upon micturition). |
||
Alveoli |
||
Trachea |
||
Jejunum |
The paragraph below relates to this graph, which describes changes in membrane potential over time. Fill in each of the blanks to complete the paragraph using terms from the list provided. More words than necessary are provided, and terms may be used more than once.
Cell name |
Where would you usually expect to find these types if cells |
Primary role |
|
Parietal cell |
Gastric glands in the stomach. |
Secrete intrinsic factor and HCl |
|
Melanocytes |
Hair follicles and the epidermis |
Production of melanin to protect underlying tissues from harmful UV rays. |
|
Pacemaker cells |
Sinoatrial node i.e within the wall of the atrium near opening of the superior venacava -Atrioventicular node i.e between the right ventricles and right atrium within the atrial septum -Along the interventricular septum -In the inner ventricular walls of the heart , beneath the endocardium |
Spontaneous depolarise to trigger contraction of cardiac muscles. Establishes the heart rate |
|
Osteocyte |
Spaces of the vertebra bones |
-Bone remodelling and repair. - Controlling mineral balance or ion exchange. |
|
Red blood cells/erythrocytes |
Haemoglobin |
Contains large quantities of haemoglobin, enabling it to bind plus transport respiratory gases |
|
Chief cells |
Deep mucosal layer of the stomach lining |
Responsible for secretion of pepsinogen and chymosin in ruminants |
The pressure driven movement of water and solutes from the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule is best-described as tufts. |
The movement of glucose into cells via glucose transporter proteins is an example of facilitated diffusion. |
Cells lining the small intestine continue to absorb glucose, even when glucose concentrations are much higher in the cells compared to the intestinal contents. This is because the glucose is entering the cell via the process of facilitated diffusion or active transport |
When a micelle contacts the intestinal epithelium, the fatty acids move into the cells via lymph. |
In the thick ascending limb of the nephron loop, Na+ and Cl- are removed from the tubular fluid via co-transporter |
ADH facilitates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical plasma membranes of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting system. These channel proteins allow water to move out of the tubular fluid via vasa recta |
The action potential spreads along the sarcolemma , until it reaches a T-tubule. The action potential continues down the T-tubule where it triggers the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This exposes binding sites myosin heads bind to the exposed sites on myofilament to form cross-bridges.
scenario |
Type of immunity |
Bacterial septicaemia (bacterial contamination in systemic circulation |
Specific (cell-mediated immunity) |
The pH of hydrochloric acid in the stomach act to destroy ingested bacteria |
Non-specific (first line defence) |
A liver cell mutates and becomes cancerous |
Specific (antibody-mediated) |
A virus multiplies inside the epithelial cells in your throat |
Specific (cell mediated immunity) |
ADH Hormone |
Aldosterone |
|
What is synthesised in this hormone? |
Neurones in the supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus |
Zona glomerulosa in the adrenal gland |
Gland that secretes this hormone |
Posterior pituitary gland |
Adrenal gland |
Facultative or obligatory re-absorption? |
Facultative re-absorption |
Obligatory |
Mechanism of action |
Controls the concentration of urine. Pituitary gland below the skin produces ADH which is released into the blood stream and travels into the blood to the kidneys |
The hormones act in renal collection ducts to strike re-absorption of sodium ions and secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions |
Parameter |
Normal values |
Sample 1 |
Sample 2 |
Colour |
Yellow |
Dark yellow |
Reddish tinge |
Glucose |
Negative |
Positive |
Negative |
Bilirubin |
Negative |
Negative |
Positive |
Ketones |
Negative |
++ |
-- |
Specific gravity |
1010-1030 |
1.039 |
1.010 |
Blood |
Negative |
-- |
++ |
PH |
5-6 |
5.5 |
6.0 |
Protein |
Negative or traces (<30mg/dl) |
++ |
++ |
Nitrite |
Negative |
++ |
++ |
Leucocytes |
Negative |
++ |
++ |
- What personal protective equipment should be worn when handling someone else’s urine? Explain. (1 mark)
Gloves-when handling body fluids like urine or equipments containing body fluids or touching someone else’s mucous membrane or broken skin as well as doing invasive procedures it is advisable to wear protective gloves to prevent contraction of the fluids that may lead to infections or diseases.
- Compare the normal and sample values. List any abnormalities you observe in the section below. Are they higher or lower than normal?
The colour change in sample 2 changes from yellow to reddish tinge
- Give a situation in which you might expect to see these changes in an otherwise healthy A situation where a person uses drugs
- What might have been happening in the nephron to cause these abnormal results? Explain your observed abnormalities by linking them with the part of the nephron involved and the process involved (ie filtration, secretion or reabsorption). Ensure that any relationships between the abnormal readings are made clear in your response. It compromises kidney function by promoting liver disease.
Why is injury to the medulla oblongata frequently fatal?
The brain stem or medulla oblongata controls the autonomic functions of the brain such as breathing, digestions and heart rate to mention just a few. However, damaging it will disrupt these functions and since they are essential to living, the result will be death or life long hospitalization with life support for the patent or victim
Picture |
Name of phase |
Description of phase |
a) |
Vascular spasm phase |
A cut blood vessel constricts due to inherent vascular response to injury as well as induced vasoconstriction. The constriction slows blood flow via the defect and then prevents blood loss. Since this measure alone cannot prevent further blood l, it minimizes blood flow via a break in the vessel until when the other homeostatic measure is able to plug up the defect. |
b) |
Platelet plug formation |
Platelets join to form a plug at the cut vessel. They(platelets ) don’t stick to smooth endothelia surfaces of the blood vessel , however when the lining is damaged due to vessel injury, platelets becomes activated by the exposed collagen and immediately sticks to the collagen to form a homeostatic plug at the cut site. |
c) |
Blood clotting |
Blood clotting is due to a chain reaction involving plasma clotting factors. Clotting is transformation of blood from a liquid state into a solid gel. The formation of clot on the platelet plug makes the plug stronger by reinforcing a seal over a cut in the vessel. Blood clotting in this phase helps prevent bleeding from any imminent defect. |
Picture |
Vessel type? |
Identifying cause |
Layer of vessel |
Notable because |
Relates to vessel |
a) |
Elastic artery |
Have thick walls made of three layers |
Tunica adventitia |
Because it contains blood vessels and nerves |
Acts as a supportive vessel |
b) |
Continuous capillary |
Are small in size and the walls are single cell thick |
Media and adventitia muscles |
Have a continuous basal laminae |
They convey blood between venules and arterioles |
c) |
venule |
Narrow layer of smooth muscle cells |
Three tunics |
Presence of simple off-the –shelf tube |
Allows blood to return from the capillary beds to drain into the larger blood vessels, |
d) |
Muscular artery |
Has three layers |
tunica externa. |
Because it contains blood vessels and nerves |
Acts as a supportive vessel |
Mechanism |
Body temperature |
Blood pressure |
Mechanism: blood clotting Hormone: Thrombin |
Role |
Maintaining body temperature within narrow, optimal limits |
Maintaining normal blood pressure in the body |
Preventing excessive bleeding |
Receptor |
Thermoreceptor in skin |
Baroreceptors in the heart |
platelets |
Control centre |
Brain (hypothalamus |
Brain |
Blood vessels |
Effector |
Sweat glands and arterioles near the skin |
Heart and blood vessels |
Platelets and proteins in the plasma |
Positive or negative feedback? |
Negative |
Negative |
Positive |
a)What is the mother’s genotype? Explain your reasoning.
Genotype is XDXd
Reason: Duchenne is carried on the x chromosome and since it is a recessive sex linked disorder.
- b) What is the father’s genotype? Explain your reasoning.
Genotype is XD Y
Reason: since the father has no duchenne alleles which are denoted by d.
- c)What is the likelihood of the male foetus having DMD? Use a punnet square to explain your answer.
XD |
Xd |
|
Xd |
X DXd |
Xd Xd |
Y |
XD Y |
Xd Y |
The likelihood of male foetus having DMD is 1:4
Proteins are digested by pepsin at a neutral pH in the stomach. Further protein digestion is achieved by pancreatic peptidase in the duodenum and completed at the microvilli by brush border enzymes to liberate bile salts for absorption. Digestion in the small intestine requires a pH that is alkaline. Intestinal pH is adjusted by secretion of bicarbonate produced by the liver and insulin produced by the pancreas. Pancreatic enzymes show specificity for their substrates. Pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates to Disaccharides and disaccharides. Brush border enzymes complete carbohydrate digestion to Monosaccharide’s for absorption. Pancreatic lipase, together with bile salts acting as an emulsifying agent, digests fats to monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the intestinal capillaries. Monoglycerides and free fatty acids are absorbed into the Lymphatic vessels.
Describe the changes in volume and pressure inside the chest cavity during a normal exhalation. Explain why these changes are occurring, and the effect upon airflow. (2 marks)
Exhalation increases internal volume of the lungs thus decreasing the volume in thoracic cavity. This is because decreased volume in thoracic cavity increases pressure that pushes lungs back to their normal shape hence allowing lungs to expel air during exhalation
Question |
Answer |
Contraction of which muscle/s produces the movement labelled 1? |
Diaphragm muscles |
Contraction of which muscle/s produces movement labelled 2 |
Thoracic cavity |
At label “3”, is pressure outside greater than or less than pressure in the lungs |
The pressure is lower |
Is the pressure in the space labelled "4", higher or lower compared to atmospheric pressure |
The pressure is lower |
At label “8”, is pressure outside greater than or Less than pressure inside the lungs |
The pressure is greater |
Name any ONE muscle that contracts to cause the extra movement required when you need to expire forcefully |
External intercostals muscles |
Regarding ventilation, which process is active - inhalation or exhalation? Explain your answer. (1 mark)
Inspiration is the most active process regarding ventilation. It involves contraction of the diaphragm where thoracic cavity increases in volume hence decreasing the intra-alveolar pressure such that air flows into the lungs
- Infectious agent: Salmonella typhi
Reservoir: contaminated food icy-slushie
Mode of transmission: contaminate food
Portal entry: mouth
Susceptible host: young child; immature immune system
Location |
Type of epithelium |
Relate structure to function |
Bladder |
Transitional epithelium |
Permits repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling. This allows the bladder to cope with large changes in volume (ie stretch as it fills with urine, and recoil upon micturition |
Alveoli |
Squamous epithelium |
Facilitates transfer of gases between the alveolar air as well as the blood. They also allow passage of materials via filtration plus simple diffusion in sites where protection is not necessary |
Trachea |
Presudostratified squamous epithelium |
Their mucous secretion and cilia aids in collection of foreign material so than they can be coughed or sneezed out |
Jejunum |
Simple Columnar epithelium |
Lines organs of the digestive tract such as the small intestine , stomach and the large intestine |
During resting membrane potential the inside of the cell is 70 mV more negative than the outside of the cell. When a stimulus is applied, the membrane potential must reach peak action potential in order for an Action Potential to be fired. At the start of an Action Potential, Na+ channels open and Na+ ion enter the cell. This phase is called depolarization. Which number indicates the point where a stimulus is applied 8? The action potential is the period of time in which the nerve membrane can start another action potential only if a much greater stimulus than usual is applied.
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